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1. Etymological characteristics of the modern English vocabulary.

Borrowings.

The most characteristic feature of English is usually said to be its mixed

character. The native element is estimated to make 25-30% of the English voc-ry. In

comparison with the Old English period the contemporary voc-ry is almost 13time

large and the difference does not like only in the bulk of words but in their origin

and meaning as well. There is a considerable number of words which form the

central part of the voc-ry. We may call them the basic word stock of a lan-ge. The

basic word stock of a lan-ge is a historical category .The native and foreign elements

are practically inseparable in lan-ge, and they are treated separately for the purpose

of study. Words of native origin make the most part of ancient element (Indo-

European and Ger’manic). The great stability and semantic peculiarity of Anglo-

Saxon words account for their great word building power. The formation of new

words was greatly fa’cilitated by the fact that most Anglo-Saxon words are not root

words. The reason of such stability and high frequency value lies in the fact that

native words stand for fundamental things and generally express the most vital (ай)

concepts. The high frequency value has brought about other important peculiarity

units of the voc-ry belonging to the native element. These are: 1) plurality of

meaning 2) great word building power 3) combinative power in phraseology.

Borrowings enter the lan-ge in 2 ways:1) through oral speech (by immediate

contact between the people) and 2) through written speech (by indirect contacts

through books, letters). Oral borrowing took place chiefly in the early periods of

history. Whereas in recent times written borrowings gained importance. Some

criterion for determining borrowings: 1) strange sounds, 2) sound combination, 3)

position of stress, 4) its spelling, 5) the correlation b/w sounds and letters.

Borrowings may be Latin, Greek, Scandinavian, the Norman French element in the

Eng. voc-ry, Russian.

Words of Latin origin were borrowed at the earlier periods through immediate

contact, that is orally, are mostly monosyllabic words and they denote things of

every day live. They are generally thoroughly (а) assimilated: pear, pea(и), paper,

cheese, plum, butter, dish – a number of words adopted at that period belong to

trade, eg. : cheap, pound. The element – monger-(а) in the words seen now: fish-

monger, scandal-monger. Some of the words have a military character eg.: port,

street ,wall-mill, kitchen- all these words have been quite successfully assimilated.

They have undergone all the phonetical changes streat[e]- strat[ ] –street[i:].

The 2d stratum(а) of Latin words came into English at the end of the 6-8-th

centure and in the 7th cen., when people of England were converted to Christianity.

Since lan-ge was the lan-ge of church many latin words mostly of Greek origin

denoting religious concepts came into English, they are: alter, angel, apostle,

bishop. Many L. words borrowed at that period belongs to other spheres of life,

such as: things of every day importance: cap, nat, chest; names of many vegetables

and plants, introduced into culinary(а) and medical practice of monks such as: beek,

fleenk, lily. Since monasteries were also cultures centres where books were written

and translations made such words were borrowed: school, fever, circle, verse.

The third great stratum of Latin borrowing poured into English during and after

the revival of learning Renascence. Their original source is Latin and their

immediate source is French. There are verbs the infinitives of which end in the

suffix –ate, eg: aggravate, exaggerate, verbs ending in –ute to contribute, attribute.

Different verbs: to dismiss, to collect, to affect. Adjectives borrowed from Latin

participles: arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient. Nouns: accident, incident, orient.

It often happened that from Latin we borrowed words which were before borrowed

in French. Their meanings are sometimes quite different. Thus in English their

appeared Latin-French doublets(аи). By doublets we mean 2 or more word

different in form but which go back by different sources to the same original

word:

Latin French

Appreciate appraise

Secure sure

Abbreviate abridge

Greek Borrowings are easily recognized, e.g.: names of deceases and flowers

like dropsy (водянка), funsy(рябина). Greek words are recognized by their specific

spelling, e.g.: ch- , character; ph-, philosophy; rh-,rhetoric. The G words can be also

recognized by the –ist, theorist; -ics, acoustics; -ism, communism; -id, leonid; -isc,

astorisc; -ise, philosophise; -oid, asteroid; -osis, neurosis. Some proper names of G

origin got to be quite popular in England, such as: Catherin, George, Margaret,

Sophire, Alexander, Irene(ай), etc. Many G words came to Eng in a very

complicated manner, such words as catalog, chair, chronical, police, policy,

travelled from G to Latin, then to French, from French to Eng. Terms for various

fields of science, such as literature and art: poet, rhythm, tragedy, comedy,

drama(а), lexicon, theatre, episode. The words lexicology, antonym, archaism,

dialect, etymology, euphemism, homonym, homophone, idiom, metaphor, etc.

There are also G prefixes which help to identify a word of G origin, e.g.: a-, aseptic;

an-, anarchy; anty-, antidote, ant-, antarctic; di-, dilemma, dis-, disyllabic.

Scandinavian Borrowings. The Scandinavian invasion of England which

proposed to be of linguistic importance began in the 8

century. The Danish settlers

mixed with the native population. The fact of both languages being Germanic

facilitated mutual understanding and word borrowings. It is sometimes difficult to

say whether a word is of native or of Scand origin. Words are sometimes considered

of Scand origin if they were not met in AngloSaxon documents up to the 11

century, e.g.: anger, fellow, gate, husband, window, to hit, ill, low, meek, old, ugly,

awkward, flat, sly, weak, grave, group, gasp, get, give, glitter, lift, rid, scare, scow,

take, die, raise, happen, liken, draggle, struggle. Among numerous Scand

borrowings we also see the pronouns: some, both they; pronominal adverbs: hence,

whence, thence. In distinguishing Scand word-stock we may sometimes apply the

criteria of sound such as [sk]: skill, scrape, scream, scare. Keeping the sound [g]

before –i and –e as hard: give, get. The presence of the initial element ‘ste’ in the

words: steak, stem. On the whole there is every reason to agree with those of our

linguists whose research shows that the Scand influence upon Eng was more like the

influence of a kindred dialect.

The Norman French Element. French borrowings ‘penetrated into Eng in

different ways:1) from the Norman dialect during the 1

centuries after the Norman

conflict of 1066; 2) from the French national literature lang-g of the 5

cent.

During 2 centuries after the Norman conflict the linguistic situation in Eng was

rather complicated. The people spoke Eng, scientific and theological literature was

in Latin, the court literature, fiction was in French. All the positions of trust and

influence in the government in law court, in the army, at court and in the church

were occupied by the Norman-Fr lords and officials, and that can be easily seen in

the nature of borrowings.

Law terms: accuse, justice, jury, rent, prison, crime.

Religious terms: father, saint, charity, clergy(дух-во), parish(приход), pray.

Worlds connected with trades: barber, butcher, grocer, beef, mutton, tailor.

Terms of rank: duke, duchess(ач), prince, peer(пэр), baron.

Terms of art: art, beauty, colour, image, figure, paint, ornament.

Terms of architecture: arch, tower, pillar, column, palace, mention.

Later Fr borrowings can be easily identified by their peculiarities of form and

pronunciation: automobile, garage, machine, ‘camouflage. As we see, their ear-

marks are quite unmistakable: the stress on the last syllable, the long [i:], the final

letters ‘p,s,t’ are not pronounced (ballet), the letter ‘g’ = [ж] before ‘e’&’i’

(camouflage); ‘ou’ =[u:], ‘eau’= [зu] (bureau), ‘e’= [ai] (ballet). The graphic

features are not less striking (programme, gazelle), the sound group [tS], change,

charm.

Russian Borrowings. Russian words began to penetrate into the Eng vocabulary

as early as the old Eng period. They were brought by the 1

travelers and tradesmen

and belonged to one semantic sphere, that of agricultural produce,

implements(орудия), e.g.: hemp, mattock, plough. In the 2d part of the 16

century

we find words representing various semantic spheres, geographical names: steppe,

taiga, tundra(а). Names of animals and fish such as mammonth, borza, beluga,

sterlet. Objects connected with the mode of life: vehicles, troika, kibitka, tarantas,

droshki. Clothes –saraphan, shuba. Units of weight and measure: pud-16kg. Money:

rouble, copeck. National instruments: balalaika. Words that reflect the political and

everyday life of Russia at that time: tzar, boyars, cossak, zemstvo, ukase.

In the 19

century we find borrowings reflecting the growing struggle between

the revolutionary and reactionary forces in Russia e.g.: narodnic. Others go back to

the classical sources and reflect Rus reality, e.g.: nihilist(ай), intelligensia,

decembrist. Such words as Soviet and Kolhoz are borrowed into many languages as

the only conveyors of the ideas of the collective wisdom or collective economy

management.

2. The Lexical and Grammatical Meanings of the Word. Types of lexical

meaning and their classification. Polysemy in English and its cause.

The 2 main types of meaning are the grammatical and lexical meanings. They are

found in words and word forms. Pr Ginsburg defines gram. meaning as the

component of meaning recurrent(повторяющийся) in identical sets of individual

forms of different words, eg. tense meaning (answered, walked), case meaning

(man’s job, sister’s book).

Lexical (semantic) meaning is the component of meaning proper to the word as a

linguistic unit that is recurrent in all the forms of the word and in all possible

distributions of the word, eg. fall-falls-fell-falling. These word forms have different

gram meaning of tense but the lexical meaning denoting the process of falling is the

same. There is no universal accounted definition of meaning. In Russia definition

given by the majority of authors however is different in detail agree one basic

principle: they all point out that the lexical meaning is the realization of the notion

by means of a definite language system.

There are 2 components of the lexical meaning: the denotational component

which makes communication possible and the connotational component which

comprises the emotive change and stylistic reference. Stylistically words may be

roughly subdivided into literally and non-literally layers. The great apart of the

literally layer of modern English vocabulary are words of general use (neutral

words). We can also distinguish major subgroups: colloquial and bookish words.

Polysemy in English. Semantically all lexical units fall into 2 types:

monosemantic (having only one lex. meaning and denting accordingly only one

concept), polysemantic words (they keep several meanings and thus they denote a

whole set of related concepts grouped according to the national peculiarity of a

given language).

The semantic structure of a polysemantic word may be defined as a structured

set of interrelated meanings. The meaning may be direct or nominative. The

meaning is nominative when it nominates the object without the help of objects in

isolation that is in the one word sentences, e.g. in the titles. The meaning is

figurative when the object is named and at the same time characterized though the

similarity with another object. Some authors divide meaning into abstract-concrete,

central-periphery, general-particular.

Within the semantic structure a polysemantic word has its principle and

secondary meanings apart from some context in an isolated position. Every word is

always understood in the central direct meaning and its other meanings are realized

only in the context. The context gives the word the charity of its meaning, otherwise

people would have difficulties in understanding each other. The secondary meanings

of a word are always connected with its central signification. They are grouped

around it.

3. Homonyms in English

H-s are w-s identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning, distribution

and origin.

Types of H. When each form of one w. has its corresponding H. in the other w.

this type of H. might be called complete (or full) since there is perfect coincidence

of form both phonetical, gram. It is possible only with w-s belonging to one and the

same part of speech. Eg. seal – a sea animal, seal – a design, printed on paper. The

paradigm of these w-s is identical (seal, seals, seal’s) Partial H. is more frequently

to be met with several cases according to variance in relationship may be

distinguished:

1) words that coincide in phonetical and gram. features: “to lie” – to be in a

prostrate position (лежать), “to lie” – to tell a lie. The present tense of both verbs

goes as follows: lie-lie, lies-lies. The past Indef. – lie-lay-lain, lie-lied-lied

2) w-s belonging to one gram. category, when only the phonetical form is

identical not the gram. one. Eg, ”lay” – Past tense of “lie” has its H. in “lay”, the

Pres. Tense of the verb meaning to cause to “lie” (класть).

3) w-s belonging to different gram. categories, dif. parts of speech may become

partial H-s. Eg, “provided” – conjunction is a H. to the forms of the Past Ind. and the

Past Part. of the verb “to provide”.

4) due to conversion. W-s belong to different gram. categories. Eg, “I’ll go and

nose about it; It’s very kind of you, sir.- You mustn’t sir me. “Nose” – a verb, is

H-ous with a noun. And “Noses” – (3-d pers. Sing.) is H-ous with “noses” (Pl.)

The remaining forms of the verb have no corresponding H-s in the paradigm of the

noun. The same with “sir”(v.), “sir”(n.).

А. И. Смирнитский classified H-s by the type of meaning into: lexical, lexical-

grammatical, grammatical.

In lexical H-s the dif-ce lies in the denotational component only. Eg, “ball” –

мяч, “ball” – бал. “Case” – 1. A particular occasion, 2. –a large box.

Lex.-gram. H. implies that the H-s belong to different parts of speech. Eg, Case2

– кейс, to case – to cover with a case. Identical sound phones “cases” possess dif-t

gram meaning of plurality and 3-d Pers. Sing. As both lexical and gram meaning

differ they are lex-gram.

Grammatical H are different in gram meaning. In the paradigm of the regular

verbs the form of the Past tense is H-ous to Part.2 Eg, answered-answered. In the

paradigm of nouns the common case, plural and singular, possessive forms are H-

ous. Eg, my sisters-my sister’s book.

According to another widely known classification H-s may be divided into:

1) Homophones are H-s which coincide in sound but differ in spelling and

meaning. Eg, know-no, knew-new, blue-blew, sun-son.

2) Homographs are H-s coinciding in spelling while different in sound and

meaning. Eg, “bow” – a weapon (лук) , “bow” – an inclination of a body or head in

solutation.

Sources of H.

1) spelling, pronunciation and grammar. Eg, right-правильный, write-писать.

2) Borrowings. The borrowed w. may also preserve its spelling and

pronunciation as it had been in its native lang. or it may go another way (it may

undergo some changes – phonetically as well as grammatical according to the rules

of the lang. from which it was borrowed. Eg, the Fr. w. “pen” was borrowed in Eng

and preserved its spelling, pron-ion and meaning. – the instrument for writing. It is a

H. to the Eng. w. “pen” small enclosure for cows, sheep, poultry.

3) Polysemy, e.g.: bar - брусок, адвокатура, бар.

From the view point of their origin H-s are sometimes divided into historical and

etimological. Historical H-s are those which result from the breaking up from

polysemy. Then one polysemantic word split up 2 or more separate w-s, eg, pupil –

ученик, зрачок; plant - растение, завод. Etymological H-s are w-s of different

etymology which came to be alike in sound or spelling. Native w-s often coincided

in shape through phonetical and graphical changes. Thus the w. “sail”-парус comes

from the Ang-Sax. “sagle” in meaning “a sail”. ”Sale” comes from Ang-Sax. “sala”

which means a bargain(багин). They both developed into the same phon. form.

Sometimes a native and a borrowed w. coincide in form thus producing H-s.

4. Synonyms in English

Synonyms are w-s only similar but not identical in meaning. S-s stand for

different shades of the same basic notion.

The existence of numerous groups of foreign S-s is one of the char-ic features of

Eng. It is a matter of common observation that in every group of native and

borrowed S-s the native w. is generally more emotional, warm, popular while the Fr.

w. is often more formal, more polite, less emotional. The w. “amity” – дружеский,

мирный means friendly relations especially of a public character b/w states and

individuals, and it is certainly not so warm as “friendship”. “Hearty” – “cordial”(о)

have different forth too. Thus you always give a hearty welcome to your friend

while an ambassador is usually cordially received.

S-s Germanic in origin are mostly concrete in their meaning, while Romanic S-s

have generally abstract and tranfered meanings. Eg, worth(G)-value(R), work(G)-

labour(R).

There are different classifications of S-s. The so-called absolute S-s are very

rare. They are mostly different names for one and the same plant, animal, disease,

science etc. eg, языкознание-языковедение, compounding-composing,

tuberculosis-phthisis.(сайсис)

We can divide S-s into 3 groups:

1.idiographic

2.stylistic

3.phraseological.

Each of the S-s differs from each other in shades of meaning. S-s of idiographic

kind are very numerous in Eng. They are sometimes called relative S-s. In id. S-s

we can always see the general and the particular. This can be easily seen in such

groups of S-s as courage –bravery – fearlessness, darling-sweet-nice-lovely-fine.

Phraseological S-s are those which differ in their combinative power. In such

groups as “few-little, many-much” we can speak of not so much of any immediate

difference in the meanings of w-s as to their difference application. Eg, much time,

little milk, many children, few books. Such groups as sunny-solar, moonlit-lunar

illustrate the difference in application very vividly. We say a sunny day, a moonlit

night, but we say the solar system, lunar distance.

Stylistic S-s do not differ in shades of their common meaning, they differ in

usage and style. Eg, doctor (official)-doc(familiar), examination(off)-exam(colloq).

Stylistic S-s are not connected with the meaning of a separate w. so much as with

the meaning general effect of the whole context. Emotional coloring plays an

important role in this. Eg, to be angry - to see red, to lose one’s temper – to make

one’s blood boiled, to drive one mad – to put one’s monkey up. These are S-s to

cause or raise anger.

5. Antonyms in English

Antonyms are w-s opposed in denotation meaning. Only w-s belonging to one

and the same part of speech can be A-s. W-s having a connotation of quality or

quantity are likely to have An-s. That is why as a rule in the 1-st place adj-s may be

opposed to one another. Eg, dark-bright, deep-shallow, hot-cold, big-small, good-

bad. Nouns may also have Ant-ms: angel-devil, peace-war, friend-enemy. Verbs as a

whole afford fewer possibilities for A-s. Still there are A-s which express two

opposite actions or conditions. Eg, to sit - to stand, to open – to shut, to come – to

go, to run – to walk, to gain – to loose.

Since a w-d can have several connotations it may have several antonyms

respectively. The w-d “deep” means profound, cunning, penetrating, strong. We say

“a deep hole – a shallow hole, deep knowledge – superficial knowledge, to be deep

– to be blunt, deep colour – pail, faded colour.” Through the different connotations

“deep” is antonym to “shallow, superficial, pail, blunt, faided.

An-s can be divided into 2 groups:

1) Those which are formed with the help of negative affixes both preffixes and

suffixes.

2) Those which are of different roots.

1) Prefixes. The most productive A-m forming negative pref. is “UN”:

unimportant, unhappy, unsuccessful, uncivil; the pref. “IN” and its variations which

are called allophones “IR, IL, IM” are less productive: indelicate, impossible,

irregular, illiterate. The same can be said about the pref. “DIS”: dishonest,

disconnected. “MIS”: misfortune, misunderstanding.

Suffixes. A-m forming affixes impart to the stem the meaning of the presence or

the absence of the quality or feature indicated by the stem: “-FUL, -Y, -LESS”:

fruitless-fruity, hopeful-hopeless, faulty-faultless.

2) Antonyms proper include w-s of dif. roots: day-night, rich- poor, hot-cold.

Considered in meaning A-s can be divided into:

1) absolute, 2) phraseological, 3) complex.

Absolute A-s are diametrically opposite in meaning and remain A-s in any w.-

combinations. These are mostly found among negative affix-formed A-s. *fruitful-

fruitless, happy-unhappy.

When A-s become components of phraseological groups of compound w-s they

may sometimes lose their absolute antonymic nature. Eg, to give – to take, to give a

book – to take a book, to give a lesson – to take a lesson, to give way - to yield will

not have to take way as its A-m. Thus some phraseological A-s differ in their

combinative power we say “the dog is dead, the dog is alive”, but we cannot say

“alive dog” though we do say “a dead dog”.

Complex A-s are those polysemantic w-s that have different antipodes for their

various meanings. Eg, the adj. “soft” has such meanings as: 1) not hard – a soft seat,

a soft nature – Ant-s: a hard seat, a hard nature. 2) not loud – in soft voice, soft

colours – Ant-s: a loud voice, loud, harsh colours. 3) mild – a soft climate, a soft

punishment – Ant-s: a severe climate, a severe punishment.

These are important treatments of the subjects made by Comisarov in his

dictionary of Eng. Ant-s.

6. Phraseological units and their classification

There are various approaches to the study of set expressions and the problem of

classification. Academician Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov classifies

phraseological units synchronically. There are 3 groups:

1) phraseological combinations (фразеологические сочетания) eg. to meet the

necessity - удовлетворять необходимость;

2) phraseological unities (фразеологические единства) eg. to stand to one’s

guns - твердо стоять на своем;

3) phraseological fusions (фразеологические сращения) eg. as mad as a hatter -

разъяренный, рассвирепевший, спятивший.

Vinogradov’s classification is based upon the motivation of the unit. The weak

points of this classification have been criticized by several authors. Firstly, it’s next

to impossible to say whether a set expression is demotivated for the speaker or not

as no rigorous (четкий) criteria exist and no consistent procedures are offered.

Secondly, the group of phraseological ‘unities is heterogeneous (разнородный).

Vinogradov makes it include proverbs, two-member technical terms, stereotyped

combinations. Thirdly, the classification lacks a general theoretical bases.

Professor Smirnitskiy A.I. suggests three classes of stereotyped phrases:

1) traditional phrases whose meaning doesn’t correspond to one notion and can

be derived from the meaning of the component parts. Eg. clenched fists, to shrug

one’s shoulders;

2) phraseological combinations (eg. to get up, to fall in love) whose metaphorical

motivation is faded and which are emotionally and stylistically neutral;

3) idioms which are imaginative, emotionally and stylistically coloured. They

always have the neutral synonym eg. to take the bull by the horn, to wash one’s

dirty linen in public - выносить сор из избы.

Professor Amosova N.N. defines phraseological units as units of fixed context.

They are divided into 2 types:

1) phrasemes (фраземы)

2) idioms

Phrasemes are always binary (ай)eg. to grind one’s teeth - скрежетать зубами.

One of the components has a phraseologically bound meaning (to grind) and the

other serves as determining context (teeth).

Idioms differ from phrasemes because they can not be separated into determining

context and components with a phraseologically bound meaning. The meaning of

the idiom is created by the unit as a whole. eg. a mare’s nest - иллюзия,

заблуждение.

The drawbacks of this classification is that the difference between phrasemes

and idioms is based on semantic relationships. This approach is less subjective than

classifying them according to motivation.

Professor Kunin A.V. gives a detailed functional and semantic classification

primarily meant to meet the demands of lexicography. The main classes are based

on the function the unit fulfills in speech:

- nominating class eg. a bull in a china shop

- interjectional class eg. By George! - Ей богу!

- communicative class eg. familiarity breeds contempt - чем ближе знаешь

человека, тем больше знаешь его недостатки.

- nominating-communicative class eg. to pull smb’s beg - морочить голову.

Professor Arnold I.V. thinks that it seems altogether questionable whether it may

be possible to give an objective classification without accepting the structural

approach. This approach takes into account the type of component parts and also the

function of the whole.

7. Problems of phonostylistics

Function of stylistic that investigates speech on the level of phonetics is called

phonostylistics. It studies the functional differentiation of pronunciation.

It studies the way phonetic means function in various in extra-linguistic

situations. Extra-linguistic situation determines the functional differentiation of

pronunciation.

The extra-linguistic situation includes all the factors that form and modify

phonetic styles. It can be defined by 3 components purpose, participants and setting.

The purpose directs the activity of the participants. Ex.: Any talk is motivated by

the purpose of talking, so it has the topic of communication and happens in a

particular setting and is reproduced by participants.

We never fail to guess what the person is doing instructing us or amusing. Each

of these variations makes a speaker select a number of functional phonetic means to

make the realization of the aim more objective. Analysing the purpose we should

mention the general activity type and the subject matter. The subject matter may be

the same. Ex.: Literature. Usual talk. But the general activity type is different.

Speaking about the participants we should take into account following: 1. Age,

2. Sex, 3. Emotional state. Speaking about setting it is important to take into

consideration: 1). The number of the participants involved into communication. The

speech may be public or private, impersonal or personal, high-cultured or low-

cultured. As for the form of communication it may be a monologue or a dialogue.

The degree of formality should also be mentioned. Speech may be formal or

informal, prepared or half-prepared, spontaneous.

8. Main trends in the phoneme theory

Most linguists look upon the phoneme as one of the basic linguistic units capable of

distinguishing words. Thus all theme to agree that the phoneme is a functional unit.

On the whole the definitions differ only according to each aspect of the phoneme is

ignored or approved. Some scholars take into consideration only the abstract aspect

of the phoneme. Others stick only to its materiality. The denial materialistic aspect

of the phoneme is generally combined with the exception of the abstract one. The

first conception of this kind was originated by the founder of the phoneme theory –

Boduen de Kurtene. According to this conception the phoneme doesn`t exist

objectively, it exists in the mind of the speakers only. This conception was accepted

by the members of the so-called “Fragne Linguistic Circle”. These linguists were

specially interested in structuring the invariant of the phoneme.

Most American linguists deny the objective reality of the phoneme. The second

group of the conceptions is characterised by the denial of the abstract subject of the

phoneme and the exaggerating the material aspect of it. The supporters of this

conception regard the phoneme a family of similar sounds. They regard the

phoneme as a mechanical sum of allophones. Daniel Johns is an outstanding British

phonetician regards the phoneme as the family of the related sounds. But the

phoneme cannot be viewed as a mere sum of its allophones without regarding its

abstract aspect and its functional realization.

9. Functions of intonation.

Intonation is a complex structure formed by significant variations of pitch loudness,

tempo, and timber. Tempo includes speech and possession. The main function of

intonation is a communicative function. It is realized in various ways. We

distinguish 6 functions of intonation:

1). to structure the information content of a textual unit and to show which

information is new and which information can be understood from the context.

2). To determine the speech function of a phrase to indicate whether it is used as

statement, command, question or exclamation.

3).To convey the meaning of attitude such as surprise, annoyance, involvement.

4).To structure a text. On the one hand intonation divides text into small units but on

the other hand intonation integrates the smaller units forming a complete text. 5).

Intonation servers to differentiate the meaning of the phrases which are of the same

grammatical structure and lexical composition.

6) Style differentiating function.

The Belles-Lettres Style.

The Theory of Functional Style.

The notion of “Style”