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Service Robots and Automation for the Disabled/Limited 84.3 Application Example: the Robotic Home Assistant Care-O-bot 1495

a) b) c)

Model of arm

Model of head

Model of table

Velocity vectors

Robot torso

Fig. 84.12a–c Velocity vectors of moving parts (a), detection of potential collisions between different parts of the robot

illustrated in red color

(b,c)

a collision-free trajectory for moving the manipulator to

grasp a previously detected object. The entire obstruc-

tion model is used as the basis for the path search. As

a result the determined path isguaranteed to be collision

free with respect to both the robot’s components and

also the robot’s environment. The implemented method

is based on path planning with rapidly exploring ran-

dom trees[84.76], and smoothing of the calculated path.

User Interface

In order to enable all users to operate Care-O-bot

without difﬁculties, the user interface must be suitable

even for users without any prior technical knowl-

Fig. 84.13 Field tests of the walking aid function

edge [84.77]. For simple man–machine communication

without misunderstanding, multiple sensing channels

(speech, haptics, and gestures) are addressed. Com-

manding the robot, for example, is done by speech

input, gestures, and touchscreen. The necessary feed-

back about the robot system state is given by speech

output and graphical presentations on the monitor. The

user interface of Care-O-bot II is implemented on

a handheld, lightweight control panel, which the user

can retain – even while the robot moves around. Care-

O-bot 3 provides a moveable tray to pass objects to

and from the user. A touchscreen integrated in that tray

provides the necessary visual input and output.

Part I 84.3

1496 Part I Home, Ofﬁce, and Enterprise Automation

Fig. 84.14 Care-O-bot 3 fetching a drink in the kitchen and serving drinks to visitors

84.3.3 Applications

Walking Aid Function

Using the walking supporters attached to the rear of

Care-O-bot II,the robotcan serve as an intelligent walk-

ing aid able to lead a user to a given target [84.78].

The velocity of the robot during guidance is adjusted to

the walking velocity of the user by measuring the user

forces applied to the handles. Several user tests in el-

derly care facilities have proven the capabilities of the

guidance system. Figure 84.13 displays some elderly

users during the latest ﬁeld tests. In order to enable

a clear view ahead, the sensor head and manipulator of

the robot was taken off for the walking aid tests.

Dependable Execution of Fetch and Carry Tasks

The fetch and carry capabilities of Care-O-bot II and

Care-O-bot 3 have been tested and evaluated on several

occasions during fairs and exhibitions. A sample home

environment containing different furniture and objects

is used to test, demonstrate, and evaluate the perfor-

mance of the robots. They are already able to detect,

grasp, and move different objects in the environment or

bring them to the user (Figure 84.14). Care-O-bot II has

also been tested in a real home environment. The robot

was ordered to get a drink from the kitchen. It was able

to grasp a box of juice from the refrigerator, and a glass

from the kitchen shelf and place it on the living room ta-

ble. Direct user interaction was tested by handing a box

of pills to the user.

The tests and demonstrations have proven the de-

pendability of the fetch and carry taskexecution system:

the underlying execution frameworkran to our complete

satisfaction. Error detection and error recovery of the

framework enabled detection and grasping of objects to

function without any failures.

84.4 Application Example: the Bionic Robotic Arm ISELLA

84.4.1 Service Robot Arms

and Drive Technology

Robot arms of servicerobots may also act as a paradigm

for artiﬁcial limbs and rehabilitation aids. Some key

features are:

•

Low ratio of weight to payload

•

High energy efﬁciency and applicability to battery-

powered operation

•

Moderate costs of manufacturing and materials in

series production.

Conventional arms of service robots have a geared

electrical motor for each joint as drives, sometimes built

with a sleeve shaft as a cable duct for other drives

and the gripper. Based on this layout it was possi-

ble to bring down the ratio of weight to payload to

approximately 3 : 1to1: 1 with designs highly op-

timized in weight and careful selection of materials

Part I 84.4

Service Robots and Automation for the Disabled/Limited 84.4 Application Example: the Bionic Robotic Arm ISELLA 1497

Fig. 84.15a,b Robot arms with high ratio of weight to

payload:

(a) lightweight arm (courtesy of DLR, Wessling,

Germany),

(b) bionic robot arm with ﬂuidic muscles (cour-

tesy of Festo AG, Germany)

(Fig.84.15). However, costs of production, especially

of their high-quality and high-precision drive units, still

exceed what may be attractive and affordable for private

users, even for medical devices. Moreover, prosthe-

ses should have properties similar to their biological

counterparts rather than properties of industrial robots.

Among others, these properties are variable stiffness

of the joints, often smaller ranges of the joint angles,

and less precision in forward-controlled positioning of

the end-effector. These properties may be easier to

achieve with a bionic-oriented approach of mechanical

and kinematic design. Secondly, a different approach

to drive technology is required, which may be more

suitable for variable stiffness and – above all – less

expensive.

Something that may be thought of immediately is

using artiﬁcial or technical muscles, i. e., technical ac-

tuators with properties of biological muscles. In recent

years and decades a number of different types have

been proposed and developed. Most of them are in

a state of research, although some are already commer-

cially available. Details and comparisons can be found

in several publications [84.79,80]. The pneumatic mus-

cle, also known as the McKibben muscle [84.81], is

a rubber tube covered with a braided tissue that con-

tracts when pressurized. Since some of its properties

are different from those of pneumatic cylinders, it is

more advantageous for some industrial applications,

and has also been used in some bionic robot applica-

tions [84.82,83]. Figure 84.15b shows Airic’s arm – an

experimental bionic arm by Festo AG, designed like the

human arm and shoulder. However, pneumatic systems

generally have low energy efﬁciency compared to elec-

tric drives, and also motion control requires precision

valves and pneumatic regulators. Another group of ar-

tiﬁcial muscles is shape-memory alloys (SMA), which

change their shape with changing temperature. They

are sparsely used for bionic robot applications [84.84].

Electroactive polymers (EAP) are materials with piezo-

electric properties. Several hundreds of such polymers

are known and some seem promising for use as techni-

cal muscles [84.85,86]. A few demonstrative examples

can be found in the ﬁeld of robotics [84.87]. Beyond

these there are some other principles of technical mus-

Cord

Shaft

Cord

fastener

Fig. 84.16 (a) Details of the DOHELIX mechanism,

(b) setup of the DOHELIX muscle

Part I 84.4

1498 Part I Home, Ofﬁce, and Enterprise Automation

a) b)

Fig. 84.17a,b The ISELLA robot arm in different poses, assembly

of elbow part with a dummy hand

cles [84.88, 89], but these are also in the state of

research.

84.4.2 The DOHELIX Muscle

A recent development of Fraunhofer IPA, Germany in

the ﬁeld of artiﬁcial muscles may overcome all disad-

vantages of the above-mentioned drives and may be

most suitable for battery-powered articulated mecha-

nisms, including consumer service robot arms, pros-

thetic devices, and rehabilitationaids. Thisdevelopment

was introduced in [84.90] and [84.91], and is shown

in Fig.84.16a. The sketch in Fig. 84.16a illustrates parts

and functionality: a highly ﬂexible and high-strength

cord is attached to a turning shaft with a cord fas-

tener and it coils onto the thin shaft while pulling

both ends of the cord towards the shaft – the mus-

cle is contracting. Using a shaft with a small diameter,

high contraction forces with small torques as well

as low contraction velocities can be obtained. The

torque and rotational speed can be produced by small-

size electrical motors and the force can be taken by

high-performance plaited cords such as those used in

sailing, ﬁshing, and kiting. However, this only works

if the cord coils in a single layer, forming a double

helix as shown in Fig.84.16a. For better illustra-

tion, the left and right part of the cord are shown

in different greyscale, although it is a single cord.

The double-helix shape is the origin of the name

DOHELIX.

Figure 84.16b shows how the mechanism may be set

up in practice, using a simple electrical motor to drive

the shaft. Either the motor or one cord end is ﬁxed; the

other two assembly points must be linearly moveable.

This is a muscle-like actuator in many respects: It can

only contract and must be stretched externally, it may

be repeatedly overloaded by a multiple of its nominal

power, only the motor-coils must not overheat and need

time to rest and to regenerate. This is similar to its bio-

logical counterpart – a skeletal muscle.After exhausting

physical work or sports activity we need time to rest and

regenerate our muscles. Unlike gearbox drive solutions,

the DOHELIX muscle is only built of a standard motor,

a standard cord, and some simple mechanical parts. It is

scalable in many respects – size, speed, power, quality,

and price.

84.4.3 The ISELLA Robot Arm

When using DOHELIX muscles to design a robot arm,

there will be some signiﬁcant differences to conven-

tional designs, as shown in Fig.84.15a. Figure 84.17

shows a full design study of the human-arm-like bionic

robot arm ISELLA in different poses: hanging down

straight and lifted to the side with the elbow bent. It

consists of a total of ten DOHELIX muscles, providing

a ﬂexor and an extensor for each articulated joint, four

situated in the elbow and six in the upper arm. ISELLA

is an abbreviation for intrinsically safe lightweight low-

cost arm. Additional safety compared to conventional

design is a consequence of the fact that a single joint

only moves with coordinated control of at least two

drives. Failure of a single drive control loop is very un-

likely to produce uncontrolled motion of the entire arm,

since the counterpart of the malfunctioning drive will

counteract the motion, trying to maintain the desired

joint angle.

Like a human arm without the wrist, ISELLA has

ﬁve degrees of freedom. The DOHELIX muscles are

composed of direct-current (DC) motors and small-ratio

planetary gearboxes. With some muscles there are two

or three drives in parallel to multiply power while using

the same type of motor, cord, and other parts.The elbow

part of ISELLA is shown in Fig. 84.16b with a dummy

hand attached.

Part I 84.4

Service Robots and Automation for the Disabled/Limited References 1499

84.5 Future Challenges

The number of assistive devices required will increase

with the continuously increasing number of elderly per-

sons. At the same time, the budget available for such

assistive tools will be extremely limited. Therefore, one

main effort of future developments will be to obtain

maximum functionality at minimum cost. One solution

could be the use of components already established in

other markets such as sensors or motors used in the

car industry or industrial applications that are already

available at low prices.

Another target for future developments is the de-

sign of new human–machine interfaces in order to

enable intuitive interaction with technical devices. Cur-

rent developments deal with speech interaction, gesture

recognition or other human-like communication chan-

nels. Another aspect for assistive service robots is their

ability to continuously learn new tasks. Current devel-

opments deal with autonomous robots exploring their

environment autonomously or ways of instructing new

tasks to a service robot by demonstration or leading it

by the hand.

A third important aspect of future developments is

the issue of safety. Whereas for mobile robots with-

out manipulation capabilities, safety regulations can

be derived from industrial applications, speciﬁcally the

rules for safe navigation of autonomous guided vehicles

(AGVs), no rules are yet available for safe manipula-

tion among humans. Currently available products such

as the Manus ARM solve this problem by limiting the

power of the motors, however, at the cost of not being

able to lift heavy objects. In order to provide enhanced

support, new sensors have to be applied to supervise

the workspace of mobile robot arms in direct interaction

with humans.

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Part I 84

1503

Automation i

85. Automation in Education/Learning Systems

Kazuyoshi Ishii, Kinnya Tamaki

The information technology (IT)revolutionwhich

began in the latter half of the 20th century has

brought great changes to education and learning.

The spread of the Internet has made information

ubiquitous, changing the emphasis of education

from the transmission and acquisition of knowl-

edge to knowledge creation [85.1], and shifting the

focus from group to individual education. Since the

perspective for discussions of education systems

is moving from instructors to learners [85.2–4],

in place of education systems we adopt the

expression education/learning systems. When

considering the automation of education/learning

systems, along with the impact of information and

communications technology (ITC), the effects of

educational psychology and educational technol-

ogy cannot be ignored. This ﬁeld overall is referred

to as instructional design (ID)[85.5]. This chap-

ter examines the history and present conditions of

automation in education/learning systems, cen-

tered on e-Learning, from the perspectives of

information and communication technologies and

instructional design. The chapter also introduces

two examples from the ﬁeld of industrial en-

gineering and management systems concerning

projects to develop education/learning programs

to train Japanese manufacturing management

personnel. These examples are both ongoing

industry–government–academia collaboration

85.1 Technology Aspects of Education/

Learning Systems..................................1503

85.1.1 Overview

of Instructional Design (ID) ...........1503

85.1.2 Development History

and Present Conditions

of e-Learning .............................1507

85.2 Examples .............................................1511

85.2.1 Educational Programs

for Cyber Manufacturing

in Industrial Engineering

and Information Management......1511

85.2.2 The Case

of an Educational Program

for Manufacturing Managers

Using IT Jigs................................1518

85.3 Conclusions and Emerging Trends ..........1523

References ..................................................1524

projects aimed at the transmission and de-

velopment of Japanese manufacturing kaizen

(continuous improvement) knowhow and the

education and training of management personnel.

The chapter concludes with a summary of

future issues concerning the automation of ed-

ucation/learning systems and a list of reference

materials in related ﬁelds for readers who seek

further details.

85.1 Technology Aspects of Education/Learning Systems

85.1.1 Overview of Instructional Design (ID)

There has been a great deal of discussion regarding the

deﬁnition of instructional design (ID). (Refer to Martin

Ryder’s site [85.5] for a comprehensive review.) Here,

we introduce two deﬁnitions; the ﬁrst one is from the

Applied Research Laboratory (ARL) at Penn State Uni-

versity [85.6]:

Instructional design as a process is the systematic

development of instructional speciﬁcations using

learning and instructionaltheory to ensure the qual-

Part I 85

1504 Part I Home, Ofﬁce, and Enterprise Automation

ity of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis

of learning needs and goals and the development of

a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes

development of instructional materials and activi-

ties; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and

learner activities. Instructional design as a disci-

pline is that branch of knowledge concerned with

research and theory about instructional strategies

and the process for developing and implementing

those strategies.

The other one is by Suzuki [85.9]:

ID refers to models and research which compile

methods to improve the results, efﬁciency and at-

tractiveness of educational activities as well as the

process of realizing learning assistance environ-

ments which apply such models and research.

ID design process models are generally divided

into the two categories: Action, design, development,

implementation, evaluation (ADDIE) models [85.10]

and rapid prototyping models [85.11, 12]. Rapid pro-

The first circle

Motivation for

learning

The second circle

Plan

Control

Implementation

Plan

Control

Implementation

Maintenance of the

status quo

Maintenance of the

status quo

Maintenance of the

status quo

Destruction of the status quo

(Revision of the standard)

Improvement of

efficiency

Improvement of

human values

Improvement of

social values

Plan

(P)

Imple-

mentation

(D)

Control

(C/A)

Knowledge

creation

Active

learning

Conservative

learning

Fig. 85.1 Concept model for learning activity to create new values based on management circle model (after [85.7,8],

[85.8], with permission from Interscience Enterprises Ltd., 2009)

totyping models are based on ADDIE models. ADDIE

models are general models for the management of ID

which grasp ID activities as a process of analysis, de-

sign, development, implementation, and evaluation. As

shown in Fig.85.1 [85.7, 8], the models are based on

aplan→ do → check/act (see) management circle

model, with the plan process subdivided into thirds.

In Fig.85.1, education/learning activities signify col-

laboration toward the creation of human value by each

individual and the creation of social value by enter-

prises and the community. We address the automation

of education/learningsystems assuming that theideal of

education/learning systems management is to continu-

ously create newand greatervaluein education/learning

activities.

Table 85.1 summarizes the education/learning sys-

tems design and operational methods of each process

under this model. This table is revised from models pre-

sented in Gagne [85.13]andAkahori [85.14], incorpo-

rating our own experience. We now proceed to explain

ID following the processes presented in this table. (See

the list of reference materials for further details.)

Part I 85.1