Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition
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The amount of resistance is determined by both the nature of the control system
and the characteristics of the individuals involved. For example, Lawler suggests that
resistance to control systems is most likely to be present when:
■ the control system measures performance in a new area;
■
the control system replaces a system that people have a high investment in maintaining;
■ the standards are set without participation;
■ the results from the control system are not fed back to the people whose perform-
ance is measured;
■ the results from the control system are fed to higher levels in the organisation and
are used by the reward system;
■ the people who are affected by the system are relatively satisfied with things as they
are and see themselves as committed to the organisation;
■ the people who are affected by the system are low in self-esteem and authoritarianism.
97
Control systems are bound to be viewed with a certain amount of suspicion, and pos-
sible resentment, by members of staff. Therefore, if control systems are to be successful
in leading to improved performance and organisational effectiveness, they require
attention to factors which influence human behaviour.
No form of control is absolute and organisations can only achieve their objections
through the efforts of their members. There are a number of factors (discussed in previ-
ous chapters) which can affect the successful implementation of management control
systems, including:
■ consultation and participation;
■ motivation;
■ organisation structure;
■ groups and the informal organisation;
■ leadership style and systems of management.
The manager should attempt to enlist the co-operation of staff and help them to feel
that decisions which are taken are in their own interests. This calls for a high level of
consultation and encouragement for staff to participate in the decision-making
process. If staff are committed personally to particular objectives they are more likely
to direct themselves and to exercise self-control over their level of performance. Staff
should understand, and accept, the purpose and nature of control systems. This should
help to make for better employee relations.
Motivation is an important aspect in the operation of a control system. Lack of positive
motivation can lead to frustrated behaviour resulting in lack of commitment to the
aims of the organisation and poor job performance. This may lead to increased control.
People are influenced by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function
of the relationship between effort expended and perceived level of performance, and the
expectation that reward will be related to performance. People want to know how well
they are performing. This places emphasis on the need for reporting of information and
feedback, and the comparison of actual performance against planned targets.
Recognition given for a satisfactory level of attainment coupled with a suitable
reward system, as integral parts of control, can do much to motivate staff and encour-
age improved performance. Emphasis should be placed on output controls of
performance and achievement. No amount of management control will prove effective
unless staff are positively motivated to achieve a high level of performance.
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OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO MANAGEMENT CONTROL
Consultation
and
participation
Motivation
The structure of an organisation and its pattern of management can affect the imple-
mentation of control systems. Organisation structure can be distinguished in terms of
two divergent systems of management practice at extreme ends of a continuum – the
mechanistic and organic systems.
98
These two systems imply differences in the total
amount of control.
The mechanistic system is a more rigid structure and is appropriate to relatively
stable conditions. It is characterised by specialisation, a clear hierarchical structure of
authority, an emphasis on rules and procedures, closely defined duties and responsibil-
ities, and the downward flow of information. Organisations with a mechanistic
structure are more readily suited, therefore, to the operation and implementation of
traditional systems of control.
The organic system, however, is a more fluid structure and appears to be required
for conditions of change and for uncertain environmental influences. This system is
characterised by a network structure of control, authority and communication, the
continual adjustment and redefinition of jobs and communication based on informa-
tion and advice rather than instructions. New problems constantly arise and require
actions which cannot be allocated among defined roles in the hierarchical structure.
The effectiveness of control is more dependent upon individual involvement and com-
mitment to the aims of the organisation. Traditional systems of control are therefore
less suited to organisations with an organic structure.
The nature and form of management control systems are also influenced by specific
features of organisational design: for example, the extent of divisionalisation and dele-
gation, and the shape of the hierarchical pyramid structure, will affect the means of
control over the behaviour of staff.
The operations of groups and the informal organisation can influence the functioning
of control systems. Informal group ‘norms’ and peer pressure can be one of the most
powerful forms of control. It may be recalled that one of the findings of the bank
wiring room experiment in the famous Hawthorne studies was that the group did not
follow company policy on the reporting of production figures. Although actual pro-
duction varied the workers officially reported a relatively standard amount of output
each day, and in order to remain as a member of the informal group the supervisor
acquiesced to this.
Membership of a harmonious and effective work group can be a source of motiva-
tion and job satisfaction. Socialisation can help create a feeling of commitment to the
group and reduce the need for formal management control. Recall, also, the discussion
on the value of group working as an approach to job design and improving job satis-
faction (Chapter 18). With the development of autonomous work groups, members
have greater freedom and wider discretion over the planning, execution and control of
their own work.
In order to maintain co-operation and commitment of staff the manager must con-
tinually review at both the individual and group level the operation of the control
system and the progress made in achieving objectives. This includes full participation
of staff in discussions on the operation of control systems which affect them, on the
difficulties and problems experienced, and on decisions concerning remedial action
and future plans.
Leadership style and systems of management
The exercise of control is an expression of leadership style and systems of manage-
ment. The style of managerial leadership is a function of the manager’s attitudes
towards people, and assumptions about human nature and behaviour – for example
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y.
99
The central principle of Theory X is direction and
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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Organisation
structure
Groups and
the informal
organisation
control through a centralised system of organisation and the exercise of authority. By
contrast, Theory Y is based on the principle of the integration of individual and organ-
isational goals. People can learn to accept and to seek responsibility, and will exercise
self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed.
The character of control processes is one of the organisational variables identified
in Likert and Likert’s four-fold model of management systems: System 1
(exploitive–authoritative), System 2 (benevolent–authoritative), System 3 (consultative)
and System 4 (participative–group).
100
In System 1 the major concern with regard to
the performance of the control function is at the top hierarchical level in the organisa-
tion, the review and control functions are concentrated in top management, and there
is an informal organisation opposing the goals of the formal organisation. In System 4
the concern for performance of control functions is spread throughout the organisa-
tion, review and control functions are carried out at all levels, and the formal and
informal organisation share the same goals.
Likert found that in Systems 1 and 2 organisations, high performance goals by su-
periors, coupled with high-pressure supervision using tight budgets and controls, yield
high productivity initially because of compliance based on fear. However, because of
unfavourable attitudes, poor communications, lack of co-operative motivation and
restriction of output, the long-term result is high absence and turnover, and low prod-
uctivity and earnings. On the other hand, the nearer the behavioural characteristics of
an organisation approach to System 4, the more efficiency improves. Organisational
decisions are improved since they are based on more accurate information and there is
greater motivation to implement the decisions.
A system of Management by Objectives may allow staff to accept greater responsibility
and to make a higher level of personal contribution. Participation is inherent if
Management by Objectives is to work well, and there is an assumption that most
people will direct and control themselves willingly if they share in the setting of their
objectives.
101
The main features of Management by Objectives are: the setting of objec-
tives; the specification of jobs and key tasks by discussion between the manager and
staff; identification of key result areas; agreement on standards of performance; con-
trol, review and adjustment of objectives. The concept of Management by Objectives is
therefore closely related to the general principles of a management control system.
Management by Objectives can be applied as a modern and effective method of con-
trol (see Table 21.2). It could, for example, be used in a positive and constructive way to
provide a control system related to performance appraisal and career progression.
However, there is a danger that if MBO is not implemented in a spirit of genuine trust,
then the system will tend to be perceived simply as a control mechanism and may well
result in reduced levels of performance.
Management control systems are frequently thought of in terms of financial and
accounting systems. The reasons for this are easy to understand.
■ The stewardship of financial resources is of vital concern to the majority of organisa-
tions. In both private enterprise and public sector organisations there is an
increasing need to demonstrate value for money expended. Control systems are
often geared to highlight easily identifiable performance of sales, costs and profits.
■ Organisational aims, objectives and targets are often expressed in financial terms
and measured in terms of profitability. Results are measured and reported in finan-
cial terms.
CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER
867
Management
by Objectives
FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING SYSTEMS OF CONTROL
■ Money is quantifiable and is a precise unit of measurement. It is easily understood,
and is often used as a common denominator and as a basis for comparison.
■ Financial limits are easy to apply as a measure of control and easy to relate to. For
example, the need for control is an integral part of the process of delegation. This
control may easily be applied where, for example, a manager gives a subordinate the
authority, without prior reference, to incur expenditure on certain items up to a
given financial cost limit.
It is understandable, therefore, that so much attention is given to financial and
accounting systems of control. Managers rely on accurate information systems as a
basis of control and this information is frequently expressed in financial terms.
However, accounting statements focus on only a limited area of activity.
Thanks to the need for objectivity, everything in accounting statements is inward looking, con-
centrating on costs and based on the concept of capital maintenance.
102
Management control embraces far more than just financial or accounting considera-
tions. It is concerned with the whole process of management: with the extent to which
organisational aims are achieved and with improvement in performance. Control
includes considerations of such factors as production, inventory, quality, judgement,
consumer satisfaction, market share, social responsibilities, and the human factor and
management of people. For example, Gratton refers to a simple causal model that links
business goals – people context – individual behaviour and attitudes – performance of
the firm – financial performance.
High-performance companies are created by focusing on a number of appropriate business
goals, which are translated into an appropriate context in which people work. Employees behave
in a way that meets the business goals and this impacts on firm performance and ultimately
financial performance.
103
Figure 21.9 presents a ‘summary outline’ of the nature and scope of organisational
control.
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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Activities in Management by Objectives Management control system
Agree what you expect from me Planning what is desired
Specification of objectives and targets
Give me an opportunity to perform Establishing defined standards of performance
Let me know how I’m getting on
Monitoring and reviewing actual performance
Controlling information and feedback
Give me guidance where I need it Comparing actual performance against planned targets
What can be done to improve performance?
Reward me according to my contribution Recognition of achievement
Motivation for further improvement in performance
Control, review and adjustment Taking corrective action
Table 21.2 Management by Objectives as a control system
(Adapted and reproduced with permission from Humble, J. W. Management by Objectives, Management Publications Limited for the British
Institute of Management (1972) p. 46.)
CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER
869
Figure 21.9 Summary outline of organisational control
(Reproduced with permission of Training Learning Consultancy Ltd, Bristol.)
In their discussion of the role of accounting systems in organisational control, it is
interesting to note the words of Berry, Broadbent and Otley:
Accounting systems provide a fundamental way of handling high levels of complexity by the
imposition of a set of standard operating procedures; this provides a major strength of account-
ing as a control system. However, weaknesses also stem from the imposition of standard systems
in complex situations because inventive human minds find ways of reporting desired results
through the manipulation of the system rather than by behaving in expected ways.
104
This wording appears to imply that the accounting system is the arbiter of correct
behaviour and that people are to ‘blame’ for their failure to act in the way imposed by
accounting systems (and presumably by the accountants who designed them).
Budgetary control and human behaviour
Accounting control systems such as internal audit, management by exception and
budgetary control tend to operate in a negative way and to report only on the
unfavourable, or on favourable variances which may have adverse consequences, for
example less spent than budgeted. ‘Success’ for the accounting staff may be equated
with the ‘failure’ of other staff. As a result there is no specific recognition from man-
agement. There is only a limited sense of achievement or self-esteem for favourable
performance or where no corrective action is required. There is little, if any, positive
motivation.
Budgets, for example, are accounting techniques designed to control costs through
people. Budgets are used as a medium for personality expression and may also be used
as a pressure device. Budgetary control can also be seen as imposing restriction on free-
dom of action by the individual.
Budgetary control was originally intended to quantify liberty: The idea was that you said to a
man, ‘We are not going to tether you to this post any more. We are going to fix a financial fence,
which you have agreed, and within this fence you can do whatever you like – trot, canter, gallop
just as you please.’ But the accountants got hold of budgetary control, and now it’s universally
regarded as just another form of head office restriction.
105
There are, of course, potential benefits from a properly prepared budget. For example,
Perrin acknowledges that as a company grows, the budget becomes more of a control
point but suggests that budgeting doesn’t have to be a tortuous experience. Involving
relevant managers and opting for realism over fantasy help in achieving a reliable,
focused budget and minimises the risk of unexpected deviations.
106
As part of shaping management processes in the new century, Lorange points to
changes in the content of the budgeting process and a shift in the top-down/bottom-
up involvement of members of the organisation.
The issue of budgets and controls will take on totally different meanings, with the emphasis
being on proactive understanding of whether we have a business idea, keeping our human
resources and capabilities in mind and, if so, how to scale it up based on involving the right
people. This implies maintaining a holistic viewpoint and a close, catalytic dialog between top
management and each project team.
107
As Hannagan, for example, points out, budgeting by its nature is the responsibilities of
people.
Budgeting by its nature necessitates the authorisation and delegation of budget activities
between individual managers and other personnel. This principle is known as ‘control by respon-
sibility’, i.e. it makes an individual responsible for the whole or part of a particular budget. It is
designed so that the targets set can be achieved: if the machine groups achieve their targets the
production department concerned achieves its target, and so on.
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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
Design and
application of
systems
And Watson reminds us that, especially in bureaucratic work organisations, the means
can get in the way of the ends for which they were designed
Budgeting arrangements are a good example of this. It is not unusual to see budgeting proce-
dures established to manage costs but where the system of annual budgets, in which money
saved cannot be ‘rolled over’ into the next financial year, leads to frantic and even frivolous
expenditure towards the end of the financial year. Why does this happen? It is again because
human beings and human interests are involved in the procedure.
109
There is, of course, nothing wrong with the use of accounting systems of control such
as internal auditing, management by exception and budgetary control. What needs to
be considered is the manner in which these controls and techniques are applied, and
the differences in use as a result of the attitudes adopted and the motives felt to be
important in influencing behaviour.
Control systems can have positive as well as negative effects. Financial and accounting
control systems, as with other forms of control, should be designed and implemented in
a constructive and rewarding way. To do this, they must take account of individual,
social and organisational factors which determine people’s patterns of behaviour.
CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER
871
CRITICAL REFLECTIONS
‘This idea of empowerment is all right in theory but as I am held responsible for the performance
of the staff in my department, then it is only right that I should exercise close control and power
over them.’
‘But surely, if you help people to accept a feeling of ownership and personal responsibility for
their own actions and behaviour, they are more likely to exercise a high level of self-control and
improve their performance. And this must be better for them and for you.’
What are your own views?
In theory an employee is allotted sufficient power to enable them to do their job, no more and no
less. In practice people in organizations can acquire power beyond what their formal role might
suggest. Power without authority is sometimes known as illegitimate or informal power … Yet in
every organization there is inevitably room to exercise discretion. Indeed without it the organization
would soon run into difficulties – hence the industrial relations tactics known as ‘work to rule’.
Drummond, H. Introduction to Organizational Behaviour, Oxford University Press (2000), p. 135.
How would you attempt to maintain a realistic balance between management control and
power over members of staff, and room for informal power and the exercise of discretion?
‘At degree or equivalent level study there is a strong case for the task of assessing student’s
work to be transferred from the staff to the students themselves.’
Debate.
■ Control is an integral part of the process of management. There are, however, vary-
ing connotations of the meaning of control. It is often interpreted in a negative
manner to suggest direction or command, the restriction of behaviour or even
exploitation of employees. However, control is not only a function of the formal
organisation. It is also a function of interpersonal influence. Control is a general con-
cept which is applied both to individual behaviour and organisational performance.
Most people recognise the need for control and in certain circumstances may actually
desire control.
■ There are a number of important characteristics of an effective control system. The
system should be understood, conform with the structure of the organisation, report
deviations quickly, draw attention to critical activities of the organisation, be flexible,
consistent with the activity to which it relates and subject to continual review. If con-
trol systems are to be successful in leading to improved performance then attention
must also be given to the factors which influence human behaviour. A dilemma that
underlies the nature of control is finding the right balance between order and flexibil-
ity, or against autonomy.
■ Work organisations are not only systems of hierarchical structure, they are also
systems of social relationships, status and power. Power is an inherent feature of work
organisations and an underlying reality behind the decision-making process.
Organisations can be classified in terms of the relationship between power,
involvement and the compliance of its members. The pluralistic approach, however,
recognises power as a social process. Power is a major organisational variable which
derives from a multiplicity of sources and situations.
■ Control systems can help fulfil people’s needs at work and their presence may be
welcomed. Often, however, control over behaviour is resented and perceived as a
threat. The manager should, therefore, enlist the co-operation and commitment of
staff, and provide for participation in the operation of control systems. The effective
functioning of control systems is also influenced by: the motivation of staff; organisa-
tion structure; the operation of groups and the informal organisation; leadership style
and systems of management.
■ It is a fundamental principle of management that for organisational effectiveness
there must be delegation. At the individual level, delegation is the process of entrusting
authority and responsibility to others but ultimate accountability cannot be delegated.
A planned and systematic approach to delegation means that it can be achieved within
the formal structure of the organisation and without the loss of management control.
Increasing attention has been given to the concept of empowerment. Despite questions
and doubts about whether empowerment actually delivers it does offer potential bene-
fits for the individual and the organisation.
■ Management control systems are frequently thought of in terms of financial and
accounting systems. The reasons for this are easy to understand but accounting control
systems tend to operate in a negative way, and to give little specific recognition from
management and only a limited sense of achievement. What needs to be considered
are behavioural factors and the manner in which financial and accounting control sys-
tems, as with other forms of control, motivate people to improve their performance. To
do this, they must take account of individual, social and organisational factors which
determine people’s patterns of behaviour.
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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
SYNOPSIS
CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER
MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 21.1
Empowerment
Reg Sell (CPsychol, FBPsS, FErgS, FIPD) was the Deputy Director of the DE/ACAS Work Research Unit, and is
now an independent consultant working with organisations on the issues discussed in this article
Introduction
Over the years many failures in introducing change have been
ascribed to a failure to take account of human and organisa-
tional issues and, in particular, to a lack of empowerment.
These failures have included the opening of the DVLC in
Swansea in the mid 1980s and more recently many business
process re-engineering applications. Why have we not
learned from the vast amount of research findings and case
studies which have demonstrated the importance of empow-
ering the workforce? This article will try to show how and
when ‘empowerment’ can help to make change more suc-
cessful and lead to more effective organisations.
Empowerment is, of course, only one aspect of the
human-centred approach to change and it is essential to take
an holistic approach. Other aspects that will need to be con-
sidered include: teamworking; rewards and incentives;
motivation; company culture; training and development; com-
munication; leadership; job design; work organisation; job
security; and industrial relations. Whilst many of these
aspects are touched upon they are not covered in detail.
What is ‘empowerment’?
The term itself is a fairly recent addition to management vocabu-
lary and could be seen as just another fad. The underlying
concept, however, has been around for many decades –
embodied in the use of words like participation and involvement.
The general understanding seems to have been that the
need for more involvement and participation is at the lower
levels of organisations. If an organisation is to be successful,
however, there needs to be involvement at all levels. All too often
it is at the middle levels where the greatest problem occurs.
People at the top of an organisation expect to be and usu-
ally are involved. Those at the bottom do not expect it, do not
get it but are not disappointed. Those in the middle hope for
participation but do not get it and are therefore probably the
most dissatisfied.
Empowerment means delegation to the most appropri-
ate level of responsibility to take actions to improve
performance. Ultimately it can mean that someone on the shop
floor can shut down the line without reference to a higher
authority if the material being received is substandard.
It means making people responsible for the quality of their
own work and giving them the means to test and inspect it. It
means putting employees in direct contact with customers –
either internal or external – so they can receive direct feedback.
It means consulting people and taking their views into
account when changes are being considered that will change
the way in which they will have to work.
Empowerment can also be seen when the top manage-
ment of an organisation decides an overall strategy but then
delegates the decisions as to how that strategy will be put
into practice by the various operating divisions.
Why have empowerment?
Empowerment is an important contributor to organisational
effectiveness in two ways.
First, it enables all the latent knowledge to be utilised.
Those doing the jobs are those who know most about them
and so empowerment brings to the attention of senior man-
agement important information that might otherwise remain
dormant. When employees do not feel that they are part of
the organisation – i.e. they are not involved in decisions – they
are likely to keep ideas to themselves and to keep any dis-
cussion on performance improvement to that with their mates
in the pub.
Second, if there is meaningful participation during a
change programme then those affected are more likely to
‘own’ the result and all it implies. It is rare for any change to
be positive in every respect. However, if those affected by the
change have been involved in all the associated decisions
and understand the compromises that have had to be made,
they are more likely to be willing to make it work.
Empowerment is especially important when there is a
high degree of uncertainty and a consequent need for flexi-
bility of action by employees. Under these circumstances the
organisation does not want people who can only do what
they are told or only work to a specified set of rules.
Why is there not more empowerment?
The present political and business environment has been very
much orientated towards efficiency with its implications for
cost cutting and by further implication to downsizing.
Business process re-engineering (BPR) has been viewed
widely as a means to this end. Whilst cost is obviously impor-
tant a major emphasis needs to be put on performance
improvement as the main way of increasing effectiveness.
In many of the cases of BPR that have been judged suc-
cessful the organisation started without considering the
human and organisational issues, but then, after making a
start, realised that success would only be possible if they
were taken into account. Ideally they should be part of the
whole process.
If empowerment is to work there has to be a belief in
people as people and not as a cost or even as a resource in
the same sense as other resources such as materials. It
comes down very largely to a question of values.
Empowerment, like most human factor initiatives, has to
be done properly if it is to succeed. To start it and then abort
it may be worse than not starting at all, because expectations
will be raised which will not be met and there will be
increased dissatisfaction with management and concern
about its competence.
Nothing succeeds like success and so it is easier to
empower an organisation that is already doing well. When an
organisation is facing a crisis then it becomes more difficult
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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE
because it is less likely that everyone will come out in a better
position. For instance, there is much more chance that fewer
people will have jobs after the change than before.
Managers are often reluctant to drive through a change
process, such as the introduction of empowerment, when
things are running smoothly but quite often that is what must
be done.
Real empowerment is, in reality, probably even more
scarce than research would indicate because many research
projects which investigate the topic rely on interviews with
senior managers whose views on the level of empowerment
are usually more optimistic than those of the rest of the
organisation. Rhetoric does not always reflect reality.
If the advantages of empowerment were obvious and it
was easy to implement we would not require exhortation from
articles like this to point out its advantages. Everyone would
appreciate its benefits and would be carrying it out. The
cost/benefit equation is always difficult to work out. Costs are
always up front and obvious whereas benefits come at a later
stage and are never certain. There is no doubt, however, that
you do not get anything for nothing and if an investment is
not made there will be no return. The major investment that is
required is time.
There are two levels of acceptance of the importance of
empowerment. The intellectual and the emotional. Many
managers will accept the arguments for it and believe the evi-
dence but what is also needed is the drive, people skills and
the ability to trust others to take responsibility if the initiative
is to be carried through successfully.
If an organisation believes that its value system is consonant
with empowerment what can it do to implement the concept?
The rest of this article looks at what needs to be done.
Competence
We have to look at competence in two areas: the present way
of working and future requirements, and of two types: the
ability to carry out the work itself and the social processes of
carrying out empowerment and change.
We cannot empower people if they are not competent
at their job. They need to understand not only what they are
doing but why they are doing it and how it fits into the wider
processes of the organisation.
Competence for future roles is much more difficult to
arrange. It is not always possible to forecast what will be
required. It may also be difficult to achieve the motivation to
learn new skills in advance of actually having the job to do.
This may be particularly difficult when information technology
(IT) is being introduced into an organisation which has not
had much experience of IT in the past.
Many organisations fail to think of developing the social
skills necessary to carry out the process of empowerment.
Especially important is the need to listen to what other people
have to say and to contribute. It is necessary to value the
contribution that other people can make – especially those
perceived to be lower down the organisation – and to make it
clear that their contribution is important.
There are, without doubt, problems in putting in new
advanced systems with people whose only experience is with
old and more traditional ways of working but, given the
opportunity to learn, it is likely that more people will be able
to make the transition than would be thought possible.
Do people want to be empowered?
There is a wide range of attitudes in any workforce and,
depending on the prevailing culture, there could be some who
do not want to be empowered and who are content to be told
what to do. This will be especially true if the history of the
organisation is one of no involvement.
Some form of survey of attitudes may be necessary to find
out people’s views but it is essential that this survey is carried
out in a way that the questions asked and the form of the
survey reflect the spirit of empowerment and are, therefore,
the questions that the respondents want to answer and not
just those questions that the questioner wants to ask. It is
desirable that the workforce as a whole is involved in the
designing of the survey.
It is also useful if employees can be given the opportunity,
to be empowered in a relatively safe way such as by giving
them the responsibility and a budget for carrying out some off-
line change to their personal environment. They could be given
the task of developing new restaurant areas, rest rooms, toilet
facilities or a painting scheme for the factory/office. It goes
without saying that any decisions they come up with must be
implemented. All too often I have come across organisations
where longstanding minor complaints have not been acted
upon – even though they would cost little to carry out.
Whilst not everyone will want to be more involved it is
surprising to many managers how many people, given
opportunities to learn and contribute, will want to be more
empowered.
Communication
Throughout this article, communication comes through as
a major factor in the success of empowerment. This does
not mean that those at the top of the organisation shout
louder to get their message to those at the bottom.
It means that those at the top tell the rest of the organ-
isation their view of the strategy, their vision for the future
and the position of the organisation relative to its customers
and competitors.
This must be followed by those at the top listening to the
views of the rest of the organisation on these issues and
modifying them if necessary. Too many organisations talk of
shared vision which usually means that the top people have
published their views but rarely that they have taken account
of the views of others.
Communication also means that those at the top have to
listen to – and act upon – the views on operational issues of
those in the front line, particularly ideas for performance
improvement. The people who are doing the jobs know most
about them; those in daily contact with customers know best
how they feel.
Communication is the aspect which takes up the most
time and is the thing which often suffers when time is in short
supply. Time is required for meetings with individuals and
with teams.
Management in Action 21.1 continued