Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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produces a negative response, increases internal conflict or results only in short-term

improvement in performance.

Control should not be seen therefore only in the sense

that it suggests close and constant supervision or as an organisational constraint on

freedom of action by the individual.

The contingency approach takes the view that the most appropriate structure and

system of management depend upon the particular situation. The nature of manage-

ment control is an organisational variable. Recall the discussion on the organisational

setting (Chapter 4) and consider likely variations in the extent and nature of manage-

ment control among such diverse organisations as, for example, a prison, an

international IT company, a local government department, a mass production factory,

a bank or a university. While the need for some form of control is constant, the

extent and manner of control is variable. The exercise of control is an expression

of management systems and styles of behaviour.

Environment of consultation and communication

In previous chapters we have discussed the general movement towards flatter organisa-

tion structures and the increasing importance of an integrating rather than a

hierarchical or controlling style of management. The nature of management is moving

away from an emphasis on getting results by the close control of the workforce and

towards an environment of coaching, support and the devolution of power to the

workforce.

The message today appears to be:

Control must never outweigh leadership

Control is the hallmark of the Old World while leadership is a measure of the New.

A similar point is made by Lucas:

Command and control is out. Consultation and communication is in … The idea of a leader as an

autocratic, domineering, opinionated character is fast becoming out-moded in industry. It just

doesn’t fit with the new knowledge-driven economy where people expect to be consulted not

commanded, nurtured not nannied.

However, according to Cloke and Goldsmith, many employees have grown up in hierar-

chical organisations and become accustomed to external authority and the dead

weight of organisational history.

Many employees actually prefer being told what to do by autocratic managers and are willing to

accept being treated like children in exchange for irresponsibility and reduced stress. They are

willing to blindly obey hierarchical authority and keep silent before their superiors in exchange

for job security. It is easier by far to be an unthinking drone who obeys orders from above than a

self-managing team member who is responsible for results.

(You may wish to remind yourself of the discussion on Theory X and Theory Y man-

agement in Chapter 7.)

Whatever the nature of control and whatever form it takes there are five essential ele-

ments in an organisational control system (see Figure 21.2):

■ planning what is desired;

■ establishing standards of performance;

■ monitoring actual performance;

CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER

835

ELEMENTS OF AN ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL SYSTEM

■ comparing actual achievement against the planned target; and

■ rectifying and taking corrective action.

Planning what is desired involves clarification of the aims to be achieved. It is im-

portant that people understand exactly what should happen and what is required of

them. This requires that objectives and targets are specified clearly, particularly key

activities, and wherever possible given some measurable attribute. Planning provides

the framework against which the process of control takes place.

Related to planning is the establishment of defined standards of performance

against which the level of success can be determined. This requires realistic measure-

ments by which the degree and quality of goal achievement can be determined.

Whenever possible these measurements should be stated in quantitative terms.

Planning and measurement are prerequisites of control. Without them there can be no

control. Objectives and targets, and standards of performance, should be stated clearly

and communicated to those concerned, and to those who are subject to the operation

of the control system.

The third aspect of control is the need for a means of monitoring actual perform-

ance. This requires feedback and a system of reporting information which is accurate,

relevant and timely, and in a form that enables management to highlight deviations

from the planned standard of performance. Feedback also provides the basis for deci-

sions to adjust the control system, for example the need to revise the original plan.

Feedback should relate to both the desired end-results and the means designed to

achieve them.

Next, it is necessary to compare actual performance against planned targets. This

requires a means of interpreting and evaluating information in order to give details of

progress, reveal deviations, and identify probable causes. This information should be

fed back to those concerned to let them know how well they are getting on.

The final element of a management control system is the taking of corrective

action to rectify the situation which has led to the failure to achieve objectives or tar-

gets, or other forms of deviations identified. This requires consideration of what can be

done to improve performance. It requires the authority to take appropriate action to

correct the situation, to review the operation of the control system and to make any

necessary adjustments to objectives and targets or to the standards of performance.

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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

Objectives

and targets

Standards of

performance

Actual

performance

3 Monitoring2 Establishing1 Planning

Measurement Feedback

4 Comparing

Deviations

5 Rectifying

Corrective

action

Figure 21.2 The five essential stages of organisational control

Control is far-reaching, it can serve a number of functions and can be manifested in a

number of different forms.

■ Control systems can focus on the measurement of inputs, outputs, processes or the

behaviour of people.

■ Controls can be concerned with general results or with specific actions.

■ Controls can be concerned with an evaluation of overall performance of the organ-

isation as a whole or with major parts of it. This requires broadly based standards of

performance and remedies for corrective action. Total quality control, concerned

with all areas of the organisation, can be seen as part of Total Quality Management

programmes.

■ Controls can be concerned with the measurement and performance of day-to-day

operational activities. This calls for more specific standards of performance and

speedy corrective action.

In Chapter 5 we referred to an increasing number of organisations that publish a ‘Code

of Conduct’. According to McKenna, this can constitute another form of control:

Developing and distributing a code of conduct is a form of control that sets out the rules of

behaviour and values with which an organisation’s senior managers expect their subordinates

will conform. Such a code will only be accepted if subordinates observe that managers at all

levels live this code in their actions, beliefs and involvement in collective learning.

Ouchi and Maguire suggest that the study of control in organisations includes selection

and training, socialisation processes, bureaucracy, formalisation and the measurement

of outputs.

From a study of retail department stores, they conclude that the control

mechanism in an organisation is not a limited, single-purpose process. They refer to

two independent forms of control that serve different functions:

■ Behavioural control is based on direct personal supervision. This form of control

appears more useful to the needs of individual managers in their attempts to control

subordinates in one department or section. The use of behavioural control is respon-

sive to the particular needs of the tasks, the abilities of the manager and the norms

of the organisation.

■ Output control is based on the measurement of outputs and the results achieved. This

form of control serves the needs of the organisation as a whole and is

used largely because of the demand for a quantifiable, simple measure of organisa-

tional performance.

Both types of control are important and they are not mutually exclusive. If controls

over behaviour are applied without adequate attention to output controls this can lead

to increased bureaucracy. An over-emphasis on formal rules and procedures may

become more important in its own right rather than as a means to an end. People may

behave as required by following the rules and regulations but important goals, such as,

for example, providing effective customer service, may be overlooked.

Public sector organisations have political purposes and are concerned with service to

and the well-being of the community. However, in recent years there has been a vigor-

ous policy of privatisation and creating freedom from direct state control and the

transfer of business undertakings to private hands. At the same time, there has been

increased government pressure to ensure cost-effectiveness, investment by private

sector involvement, and efficiency and economy in their operations. The demand for

uniformity of treatment and public accountability for their operations result in high

CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER

FORMS OF CONTROL

Behavioural

control and

output control

Control in the

public sector

837

levels of statutory controls, legislation and ministerial guidance. In the case of local

government, for example, there is the added consideration of the relationship between

elected members and permanent officers.

Despite the apparent relaxation of authority and transfer of power from central gov-

ernment there is evidence that public sector managers are under increasing political

pressure. The demand for strategic management in the public sector has resulted in a

greater emphasis on performance output measures with indicators of both a qualitative

and quantitative nature.

For example, Smith suggests that:

the public sector poses particularly challenging problems of control and governments are

increasingly relying on various types of performance indicator to inform the political process,

and thereby secure control of public sector management.

A similar view is expressed by McKenna, who maintains that:

The introduction into the public sector of managerialism – a form of management based on pri-

vate sector economic and scientific management principles – introduced dramatic changes in the

control systems used. The emphasis was switched from performance of jobs according to set rou-

tines and procedures to achievement of ‘quantifiable’ outputs.

Shovelton draws attention to the increasing importance of accountability as one of the

foundations of public services. Public sector organisations need to demonstrate share-

holder value, fair treatment of employees and high environmental standards to a range

of stakeholders, and public services face a difficult challenge in providing ‘more’ or

‘better’ or ‘clearer’ accountability.

In the case of local government there is also much

publicity directed to the accountability of senior management and the effectiveness of

control systems, especially, for example, with high-profile social services cases.

Control therefore can take a number of forms and can be categorised in a number of

different ways. Reeves and Woodward propose a classification of control systems based

on seven case studies of differing industrial organisations.

They concluded that there

was little likelihood of classifying control systems along a simple scale in one dimen-

sion, but from a large number of possible parameters they described two main aspects

of control of particular relevance to the study of organisational behaviour:

■ personal–mechanical; and

■ unitary–fragmented.

Organisations might be positioned on a scale ranging from the extreme of completely

personal hierarchical control to that of completely mechanical control; with administra-

tive but impersonal control processes between the two extremes. This scale relates to how

control is exercised within an organisation and the degree to which it is personal or

impersonal. Impersonal control systems may be administrative or mechanical. Examples

of administrative controls, which are based on formal standardised procedures, are pro-

duction planning and cost control. An example of mechanical control is the automatic

control system of machine tools or continuous flow production plant which is built into

the production process and operates through mechanical or electronic devices.

A second characteristic of management control systems, of importance in its behav-

ioural effects, is the extent to which the various control systems are linked with each

other and integrated into a single system of managerial control. Firms may be posi-

tioned on a scale ranging between the two extremes of a single integrated system of

control and multi-system, fragmented control. Some firms attempt to relate the differ-

ent control systems set for various departments into a unitary (integrated) system of

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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

managerial control. With multi-system control, standards of control are set independ-

ently by different functional specialists. People in the organisation are trying to satisfy

a number of control criteria at the same time. For example, a particular task has to

meet the demands of the production controller, the work study person, the human

resources manager, the inspector and the cost accountant.

Technology and control systems

From a further analysis of the data collected from Woodward’s south Essex study of 100

manufacturing firms, clear links emerged between the original classification of technol-

ogy and the above categorisation of managerial control systems (see Table 21.1).

Unit and small batch production firms tended to have unitary and mainly

personal controls. (A1)

Process production firms tended to have unitary and mainly impersonal controls. (A2)

The similarities in some organisational characteristics between unit production firms

and process firms identified in Woodward’s south Essex study could be explained by

the fact that in both groups unitary control systems predominated.

In the case of large batch and mass production firms, those with predominantly

personal controls (B1) had similar organisational characteristics to unit firms; and

those with predominantly mechanical controls (B2) had an organisation structure sim-

ilar to process firms.

From the analysis, Reeves and Woodward suggest that control systems may be

the underlying variable which links organisational behaviour and technology.

The classification of control systems they propose might provide a better means of

predicting certain facets of organisational behaviour than the classification

of technology.

Wilson points out that technology is not just about devices and machines but also

about social relations that encourage some form of interaction. Technology is a

human, political and social activity. ‘The locus of control cannot always be moved

from workers to managers during technical change nor from managers to workers.

Control ultimately does lie with management, though it may be resisted by workers.’

In previous chapters we have referred to the impact of developments in information

technology and these developments will also have a significant impact on manage-

ment control systems. Processes of communication are increasingly linked to computer

systems with the rapid transmission of more information to more people including

immediate access to other national or international offices. Information technology

and office automation are changing the nature of the workplace and the way in which

people work. For example, advances in telecommunications have resulted in a signifi-

CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER

839

Control Control Control Control

system system system system

A1 B1 B2 A2

(%) (%) (%) (%)

Unit and small batch production 75 25 – –

Large batch and mass production 15 35 40 10

Process production – – 5 95

Total firms 28 21 18 33

Table 21.1 Relationship between control system and classification of technology

(Reproduced with permission from Woodward, J. Industrial Organisation: Theory and Practice, Second edition, Oxford University Press

(1980) p. xxi.)

Information

technology

cant growth in teleworking, with staff working from home with a computer network,

telephone and fax. This has many potential advantages but also raises questions of self-

motivation, security and systems of management control.

Nordstrom and Ridderstrale suggest that with increasing use of IT, control will not dis-

appear but become more indirect. Information systems will be used to increase control

by measuring more things, new things at multiple levels, and at a greater frequency

than before. To a certain extent this is a substitute for the loss of hierarchy control

resulting from the introduction of new structures.

Another interesting situation aris-

ing from the increasing use of information technology is the legal position on

organisations monitoring staff emails and Internet usage.

Four particularly significant strategies of control in organisations are explained by

Child (see Figure 21.3):

■ personal centralised;

■ bureaucratic;

■ output; and

■ cultural.

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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

STRATEGIES OF CONTROL IN ORGANISATIONS

Figure 21.3 Four strategies of organisation control

Publications Ltd.)

1 Personal centralised control

1.1 centralised decision-taking

1.2 direct supervision

1.3 personal leadership: founded upon ownership or charisma, or technical expertise

1.4 reward and punishment reinforce conformity to personal authority.

2 Bureaucratic control

2.1 breaking down of tasks into easily definable elements

2.2 formally specified methods, procedures and rules applied to the conduct of tasks

2.3 budgetary and standard cost-variance accounting controls

2.4 technology designed to limit variation in conduct of tasks, with respect to pace,

sequence and possibly physical methods

2.5 routine decision-taking delegated within prescribed limits

2.6 reward and punishment systems reinforce conformity to producers and rules.

3 Output control

3.1 jobs and units designed to be responsible for complete outputs

3.2 specification of output standards and targets

3.3 use of ‘responsibility accounting’ systems

3.4 delegation of decisions on operational matters: semi-autonomy

3.5 reward and punishment linked to attainment of output targets.

4 Cultural control

4.1 development of strong identification with management goals

4.2 semi-autonomous working: few formal controls

4.3 strong emphasis on selection, training and development of personnel

4.4 rewards oriented towards security of tenure and career progression.

This is an approach often found in small owner-managed organisations. The approach

is characterised by the centralisation of decision-making and initiative around a leader-

ship figure. Control consists very largely of personal inspection to see that decisions

are carried out, and the leader may spend a high proportion of time supervising the

work personally. Once the organisation grows large enough to employ someone to

undertake detailed supervision of everyday tasks, the locus of decision-making and

close supervision will tend to become separated. The authority of the leader will usu-

ally rest upon the rights of ownership, special personal qualities (charisma) or technical

expertise. As organisations grow in size and technological complexity, top managers

will find increasing external demands on their time. In the development of an organ-

isation, a combination of factors will move management away from personal centralised

control towards bureaucratic control or output control.

This approach to control is familiar in public sector organisations and in many other

types of large organisations. The approach is based on the specification of how members

should behave and carry out their work. There is an attempt to ensure predictability

through formal job descriptions and procedures, the breaking down of tasks into con-

stituent elements, and the specification of standard methods for the performance of

tasks. Reward and punishment systems can be designed to reinforce this control strat-

egy. Compliance can be rewarded by upgrading, improved status, favourable

employment benefits and job security. Bureaucratic control will make use of accounting

control systems such as budgetary control and standard cost variances. The bureaucratic

strategy also permits delegation without loss of control. Managers can delegate routine

decision-making within formally prescribed limits of discretion.

This approach relies upon the ability to identify specific tasks having a measurable

output or criterion of overall achievement – for example, an end-product, a part manu-

factured to agreed standards, batch production or a sub-assembly. Once outputs or

criteria for achievement have been identified, management can specify output stan-

dards and targets. Rewards and sanctions can be related to performance levels

expressed in output terms. Output control strategy is aimed at facilitating the delega-

tion of operational decision-making without the need for bureaucratic controls or

relying on close personal supervision. Once output standards have been agreed, subor-

dinates can work with a ‘semi-autonomous’ relationship to management, free from

detailed control over how tasks are carried out. Output control may be difficult to

apply to certain activities, such as the legal department of a business organisation.

Although it may be difficult to establish suitable and agreed measures of output, and it

may be difficult for management to codify the activities involved, output control may

be more appropriate than the application of a bureaucratic control strategy.

This approach tends to be exemplified by organisations offering professional services

and staffed by professional people. The basis of cultural control strategy is the acceptance

and willing compliance with the requirements of management, for example through

strong professional identification and acceptance of the values and beliefs of the organ-

isation. Provided members have the necessary skills and ability they can be given wide

freedom of action in deciding how to undertake their responsibilities. There may not be

any readily appropriate way of assessing the quality of output, especially in the short

term, for example management development work of a human resource department.

There is likely to be careful selection, training and socialisation of staff in order to

permit the use of semi-autonomous methods of working, with only limited formal

controls. The combination of elements of cultural and output control could lead to

self-managing units or teams with responsibility for completing projects and meeting

agreed targets. This approach to control can only work with agreement on operating

CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER

841

Personal

centralised

control

Bureaucratic

control

Output control

Cultural

control

objectives and depends upon some shared culture among members of the organisation.

Although a cultural control strategy may help identification with the objectives of cor-

porate management, it is usually supported by substantial material inducements such

as high salaries, fringe benefits and job security.

Whatever the nature or form of control there are a number of characteristic features of

an effective control system. Control systems can have positive as well as negative

effects. It is important therefore that they are designed and implemented in a construc-

tive and rewarding way.

Although they do not readily admit it, most people probably prefer some degree of control over

their lives because it gives them some stability and contributes to their general welfare and

safety. Nevertheless, the negative connotation of control still exists and is amplified by the ways

in which controls have been traditionally set, implemented, and used in formal organizations.

Hicks and Gullett state: ‘Control systems should be understandable and economical, be

related to decision centres, register variations quickly, be selective, remain flexible and

point to corrective action.’

Developing the suggestion of Hicks and Gullett, we can

identify a number of important characteristics of an effective control system.

■ For a control system to be meaningful, it must be understood by those involved in

its operation. The purpose of the control system and the information it provides

must be fully comprehensible to those who have to act on the results. The level of

sophistication of a control system should be related to the nature of the activities

involved and to the technical competence of the staff. Information must be pre-

sented in a suitable format. If information is presented in a way which people do not

understand they are likely to disregard it, and the full potential of the control system

will not be realised. Equally, a too simplistic system of reporting which does little to

help pinpoint the cause of deviations will not be of much value to the manager. The

control system should, wherever possible, yield objective information based on

appropriate quantitative or qualitative units of measurement which cannot easily be

questioned or subject to different interpretations and possible misunderstanding.

■ Controls should conform with the structure of the organisation and be related to

decision centres responsible for performance. Information should be supplied to

those managers who have the responsibility for specified areas of activity and who

are capable of using this information to evaluate the degree of success in achieve-

ment of objectives. The information should enable managers to control their area of

responsibility, and should be presented in a form which shows clearly when correc-

tive action is necessary.

■ An effective control system should report deviations from the desired standard of

performance as quickly as possible. Ideally, indications of likely deviations should

be discovered before they actually occur. It is important for deviations from the plan

to be reported in good time so that corrective action to remedy the situation can be

undertaken promptly. For example, information that the budget is likely to be over-

spent or underspent should arrive in sufficient time to enable the manager to do

something about it and avoid drastic last-minute action.

■ The control system should draw attention to the critical activities which are

important to the success of the organisation. An unnecessary number of controls

over comparatively unimportant activities are uneconomic and time-consuming;

they can have a demoralising effect on staff and may possibly result in lack of atten-

tion to the key control points. Certain control points are more important than

others. Careful control must be maintained in key result areas and in those activities

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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM

which are crucial to the success of the organisation. For example, a restaurant man-

ager would need to have information on the number of orders taken at different

times, and the number and type of meals provided, in order to deploy staff in the

most effective manner. Information will also be needed to ensure adequate cash flow.

■ To be effective, a control system must be flexible. It must yield information which

is not influenced by changes in other factors unconnected to the purpose of the con-

trol system. For example, a control system established five years ago, which specifies

that reports to top management should be made whenever expenditure exceeds the

budget by more than £x, is unlikely to be effective if no account has been taken of

the effects of inflation. Also, if the same amount is applied in all cases, high-spending

departments may be subject to excessive control and low-spending departments not

monitored closely enough. Control systems should not become an end in them-

selves. They should be designed to improve the operations of the organisation and be

adaptable to changing environmental circumstances.

■ The control system should be consistent with the objective of the activity to

which it relates. In addition to locating deviations from the planned standard of

performance, the control system should be sophisticated enough to indicate ways in

which performance can be improved. For example, in the field of social services it

may not be sufficient just to know that expenditure has been kept within the

budget, without any underspending or overspending. It would be more helpful to

know in what areas expenditure has been incurred. It might be that the highest

share of expenditure has gone to the financially better-off, who may be more know-

ledgeable of their rights and the procedures involved, than those who may arguably

be in greater financial need. The control system should therefore address itself to

causes of deviations rather than to symptoms. Controls may point to a number of

possible problem areas for corrective action. Management will need to investigate

these possibilities, and to determine the most appropriate form of corrective action

which will deal with the causes of the deviation and solve the problems identified.

■

Control systems should themselves be subject to a continual review to ensure that

they are effective and appropriate in terms of the results they produce. They should not

be too costly or elaborate, but should satisfy the characteristic features suggested above.

Work organisations are not only systems of hierarchical structure, they are also systems

of social relationships, status and power. Power is a complex and dynamic concept and

difficult to define easily. At a broad level, power can be interpreted in terms of con-

trol or influence over the behaviour of other people with or without their consent.

Sometimes power is interpreted in terms of the extent of the influence which can actu-

ally be exercised over other people, and sometimes it is taken to include influence over

objects or things as well as people. In exploring the nature of organising work, Knights

and Willmott suggest that: ‘Power is often associated with coercive and repressive fea-

tures of social life. It is the means through which a ruling class, political elite or

managerial group controls subordinates strata within a society or an organization.’

A more specific definition is given by Morgan, who sees power as ‘the medium

through which conflicts of interest are ultimately resolved. Power influences who gets

what, when, and how.’

Robbins suggests that as power may exist but not be used it

implies a potential that need not be actualised to be effective. Power is therefore a

capacity or a potential. The most important aspect of power is probably dependency. ‘A

person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire.’

Power is an inherent feature of work organisations and is often the underlying re-

ality behind the decision-making process. It is central to the framework of order and

CHAPTER 21 ORGANISATIONAL CONTROL AND POWER

843

POWER AND MANAGEMENT CONTROL

system of command through which the work and activities of the organisation are car-

ried out, for example through the operation of bureaucratic structures and the

implementation of policies, rules and procedures. Lack of power and influence, and

office politics, are among the main sources of managerial stress within organisations.

The view of power as of functional importance is in keeping with a unitary

approach to organisation. Management control is the predominant means by which

the activities of staff are guided towards the achievement of organisational goals. The

exercise of power is that which comes from a position of formal authority within the

management structure of the organisation and which legitimises control over subordi-

nate staff.

Watson refers to the distinction between systems-control thinkers who aspire to achiev-

ing control through ‘setting up the right system’ and process-relational thinking that

acknowledges the notion of control but recognises the aspirations of those in charge of

work organisations to achieve control over work behaviours. This recognises that

because organisations exist through human relationships only partial control can ever

be achieved and whatever control is achieved over work behaviour is brought about as

much through the processes of negotiation, persuasion and manipulation as through

systems such as rules and official procedures.

Power, involvement and compliance

From a comparative analysis of complex organisations, Etzioni provides a classification

of organisational relationships based on structures of control and the use of power

resources as a means of ensuring compliance among members.

The Etzioni typology

involves three dimensions: power; involvement; and the identification of kinds of

power with kinds of involvement. Compliance is the relationship between the kinds of

power applied by the organisation to control its members and the kinds of involve-

ment developed by members of the organisation.

Power differs according to the means by which members of the organisation comply.

■ Coercive power relies on the use of threats, or physical sanctions or force, for ex-

ample, controlling the need for food or comfort.

■ Remunerative power involves the manipulation of material resources and rewards, for

example, through salaries and wages.

■ Normative power relies on the allocation and the manipulation of symbolic rewards,

for example, esteem and prestige.

Involvement is the degree of commitment by members to the organisation.

■ Alienative involvement occurs where members are involved against their wishes.

There is a strong negative orientation towards the organisation.

■ Calculative involvement occurs where attachment to the organisation is motivated

by extrinsic rewards. There is either a negative orientation or a low positive orienta-

tion towards the organisation.

■ Moral involvement is based on the individual’s belief in, and value placed on, the

goals of the organisation. There is high positive orientation towards the organisation.

When considered together, nine logical types of organisational relationships and com-

pliance result from this typology. (See Figure 21.4.)

Based on this analysis, Etzioni suggests that a particular kind of power usually goes

with a particular kind of involvement:

■ coercive power with alienative involvement – relationship 1 (typified, for example,

by prisons);

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PART 8 IMPROVING ORGANISATIONAL PERFORMANCE

Control over

work

behaviour

Kinds of power

with kinds of

involvement