Mullins L.J. Management and organisational behaviour, Seventh edition

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ment on the business needs of the organisation. The methods are designed to produce

tangible evidence-based results while maintaining an overall objective approach and

perceived equity.

A series of structured interviews with ‘job role experts’ is one approach to this compe-

tency analysis. These experts are nominated because of their close involvement with

the job role, either as incumbents or managers. The interviews would seek to ascertain:

■ the goals and objectives of the role;

■ the tasks the incumbent would need to perform in order to fulfil such goals and

objectives; and

■ the knowledge, skills and personal attributes a successful candidate would be

expected to demonstrate in order to perform these tasks effectively.

Farnham and Stevens argue that adopting a competency-based approach permits more

objective assessment of job candidates, because it uses clear job profiles and the same

criteria for selection in each job interview. They report on how a traditional approach

to recruitment and selection in the Social Services Department of West Sussex County

Council was superseded by a competency-based approach. Farnham and Stevens point

out that the decision to move to a more focused, objective, competency-based

approach required radical and positive change to the existing system. They also high-

light the key role of training and relationship-building between line managers and

personnel specialists. ‘Personnel professionals have provided advice, consistency and

expertise in developing the policy and, by working in partnership with personnel, line

managers are now fully responsible for the staff they appoint and manage.’

The growing use of competencies in HR is, however, not without its criticisms and

reservations. For example, Whiddett and Kandola question whether it is appropriate to

apply them to graduate recruitment and advise employers to take a more strategic

multidisciplined approach to selection: ‘Using competencies to measure performance

simply gives you an inventory of that individual’s behaviour. But changes in perform-

ance can be caused by many factors outside the individual’s control.’

And according

to Moloney, while aligning HR practices with a declared framework of competencies

makes sense in theory, the way those frameworks are established by the common prac-

tice of identifying and interviewing people who are believed to be particularly effective

in their roles makes no sense at all. Using behavioural event interviews to define and

create competency frameworks raises a number of problems. If organisations want to

change the behaviour of people they should look to the future, focus on business goals

and then list the qualities required of those who will help achieve them.

Whatever the nature or form of the recruitment process and methods of selection, the

actual selection decision is all-important and the culmination of the entire selection

process. As Meyrick, for example, reminds us: ‘Ultimately, the excellence of a candidate

is a function of the fit of the candidate to the appointment for which you are recruit-

ing.’ Although there is a pressing need for rules, guidelines and other principles on

which intuitive judgements are founded this is not to say that there is no room for

individual flair in recruitment, and subjectivity on the part of the recruiter is likely to

play a big role. ‘There are no easy solutions to the challenge of recruitment. That said,

recruitment does not need to be a mysterious process at which only those with intu-

itive sense of what makes the right candidate can succeed.’

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Objective

assessment of

candidates

Criticisms and

reservations

THE SELECTION DECISION

Nevertheless, the selection process should be as objective as possible and every effort

made to reach the ‘right’ decision. This decision-making is greatly assisted by job

analysis, a clear interview plan containing significant comments, and a meaningful

grading system.

If the selection decision is to be effective, good reporting as well as good interviewing

is important. The use of a grading scheme, for example, might introduce some degree

of objectivity. It would encourage selectors to rationalise their comments and bring

some level of uniformity to their assessment of candidates. The description attaching to

each grade should be carefully laid out, and the grading system and how to use it well

known to all selectors. An example of a grading scheme is given in Figure 20.5.

All five grades should be used and selectors should avoid the temptation to cluster

candidates around the C grading. No pluses or minuses should be used.

It should always be borne in mind that there is the N (number of candidates) + 1

option. That is that no appointment is made. However much pressure there is to

appoint a member of staff, it is clearly very short-sighted to appoint someone who is

not really considered suitable or who is ‘the best of a poor bunch’. Despite the costs,

effort and time involved in going through another round of the selection process, it is

in the long-term interests of the organisation to persist until a suitable candidate

is found. This must always be better than a ‘poor’ decision with the potential direct

and indirect costs arising from possible disciplinary, capability, health or tribunal cases,

for example.

The selection process provides the basis for an individualised induction programme

based on known areas for development as well as organisational context and job issues.

Induction involves the introduction of a new member of staff to the culture and envi-

ronment of the organisation, its policies and practices and to other members of staff.

Effective induction is a continuous process covering the first few months at work but it

can be viewed as an extension of the recruitment and selection procedure starting with

the selection process. Induction should include attention to rules and regulations,

familiarisation with the culture and methods of operation of the organisation, and per-

sonal training and development needs.

The first impressions of an organisation and its managers are seldom forgotten. New

members of staff face an unfamiliar environment and have to make a number of per-

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The need for

good reporting

A Outstanding candidate. No weaknesses on technical competence or personal grounds. Could

be appointed with confidence.

B Above average candidate. Many strengths and no serious weaknesses. Could be appointed

with reasonable confidence.

CAverage candidate. Strengths outweigh weaknesses. Could be appointed subject to any

special comments noted on interview plan.

D Below average candidate. Number of weaknesses. Appointment doubtful. Normally a rejection

(but acceptance might be possible subject to circumstances).

E Definite rejection (even if the only candidate). Weaknesses outweigh strengths to extent that

appointment cannot be supported.

Figure 20.5 Example of a grading scheme

INDUCTION AND FOLLOW-UP

sonal adjustments. A warm welcome, initial introductions, and a properly planned and

designed induction programme will do much to reassure members, and aid their moti-

vation and attitudes to their work performance.

The induction programme should be designed to help new members of staff to famil-

iarise themselves with their new environment, to settle easily into their new jobs and

to establish harmonious working relationships with other members of staff. Induction

should further the realisation of the psychological contract developed during recruit-

ment and selection.

It is important to remember that people cannot fully absorb a large amount of infor-

mation at one time, particularly in what could be a strange and initially uncomfortable

situation. The induction programme should therefore be planned carefully and stag-

gered over a reasonable period of time. It will also involve the active co-operation of

managers, supervisors and colleagues. Induction information packs, video presenta-

tions, and a named mentor to act as a ‘buddy’ to guide and help new members of staff,

are all helpful features of an effective induction programme.

Cost is obviously a major consideration in any selection process. However, the costs

should not be considered in isolation. They should be weighed against the costs of

selection failure, either by the appointment of an unsuitable member of staff or by the

rejection of a candidate who would have made a ‘successful’ member of staff. The

financial costs in setting up an effective selection process are immediately apparent

and usually clearly identified, for example selectors’ time and administrative expense.

The contributions from an efficient and effective selection process and the benefits

derived by the organisation are not readily apparent and less easy to identify.

Control is a vital part of a manager’s job. Control over the performance of staff is

not easy, nor is it achieved without cost. The more efficient the selection process, the

easier the process of control and the lower the effort and expenditure. Teamwork and

co-operation are necessary ingredients of a good staff and are more likely to be

achieved the higher the stability of the workforce. Better staff morale leading to

improved work performance and increased goodwill will improve the quality of prod-

ucts produced and/or service offered and assist in meeting satisfactorily the objectives

of the organisation.

In the long term the costs of improving the selection process must be more than jus-

tified in improving the effectiveness of the organisation. Mistakes in selection are

expensive, not only in the possible effects on staff morale and performance, but espe-

cially now that there is increased job security as a result of government legislation.

There may also be the costs of having to go through the selection process again. To

keep mistakes to a minimum the need is for a planned and systematic approach to

recruitment and selection.

We have said that the contribution from an effective selection process and the benefits

derived by the organisation are not always readily apparent nor easy to identify. Over a

period of time, however, some quantified measures, discussed in Chapter 19, might

help to give a possible indication of its predictive validities and success.

Information might also be obtained from: feedback from candidates; staff attitude

surveys; performance appraisal schemes; exit interviews.

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817

Design of the

induction

programme

COSTS OF THE SELECTION PROCESS

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION PROCESS

There is sometimes scepticism about the value of exit interviews but there is little to

lose by giving staff who are leaving the opportunity to explain more fully their rea-

sons, why they have chosen another employer, or to air their grievances. If employees

can be encouraged to provide constructive criticism this may help the organisation to

take the necessary action to retain remaining staff and reduce future labour turnover or

discontent. See Figure 20.6.

Other possible indicators might be:

■ the number and quantity of applicants for positions in the organisation;

■ the exercise of ‘social’ responsibilities, for example the employment of staff from

government training schemes, registered disabled people or ethnic minorities;

■ full compliance with all legal provisions and recommended codes of practice relat-

ing to employment and equal opportunities. It might be helpful for the organisation

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

Exit interviews

Accounts has been haemorrhaging people and nobody knows

why. Apart from the damaging effect on morale and

productivity, it’s costing a fortune to recruit new blood. It’s

time to ask staff why they’re leaving.

Publicise it. Telling everybody that you will conduct exit

interviews is a positive move. ‘It sends out a clear message

to the workforce that you are a listening organisation,’ says

Tracey Rimmer, a director of Hays HR Personnel.

Target all leavers. Don’t ignore employees that you are

happy to see leaving, says Steve Newhall, managing director

of HR consultants DDI. ‘There should be no such thing as

“wanted” attrition. Either you chose the wrong person or

you’ve done something to make them not perform.’ Offer

refuseniks a questionnaire, or combine the interview with

housekeeping tasks such as handing in a laptop and handing

out the P45.

Try to keep them. ‘If you want to retain somebody, then act

straight away,’ says Peter Wallum, European partner with

Mercer HR Consulting. By their final week, it will be too late

to change their mind. Conduct an early meeting to see if

they can be turned round, and keep the exit interview

separate.

Choose a neutral. Don’t let the line manager do the interview

as they may be the problem. ‘It is best if done by Human

Resources,’ says CIPD adviser Frances Wilson. ‘If the line

manager is present, the employee may be reluctant to talk

openly.’

Set rules of engagement. Make it clear whether the interview

is confidential and what will happen to feedback given.

Keep it structured. The objective is to find out why an

employee is leaving. Explore their perceptions of the

organisation to find the underlying reasons. ‘You can relate

what you learn in the exit interview back to the recruitment

process, career development, performance measurement

and succession planning,’ says Rimmer.

What are they leaving for? It’s vital to know where your

employee is going: it may be a competitor or a client. And

find out what’s on offer to them. ‘We had an engineering

client that was losing people,’ says Wallum. ‘The boss wanted

to hike salaries, but we found people were leaving because

they didn’t have decent computers.’

Listen, don’t react. An exit interview could be an opportunity

for an employee to vent their spleen. ‘Remain calm and

objective,’ says Wilson. Avoid a slanging match.

Act on the data. ‘Most organisations use the data from exit

interviews to look for trends,’ says Newhall. But there’s

nothing to stop you taking immediate action if a specific

issue is raised.

Do say: ‘We’d value feedback on your time here and your

reason for leaving.’

Don’t say: ‘I’m going to give the bugger a good grilling

before he collects his P45 and tell him we’re glad to see the

back of him.’

Alexander Garrett

Figure 20.6 Crash course in exit interviews

Reproduced with permission of the copyright holder Haymarket Business Publications Limited from Management Today, December 2003, p. 18.

to undertake an equal opportunities audit of its recruitment and selection proce-

dures and practices.

However, it must be appreciated that it is always difficult to isolate a single variable. It

is, of course, quite possible that a number of other factors, apart from recruitment and

selection, contribute to, or are the main reasons for, favourable or unfavourable figures

or indicators.

Basic principles

Drucker makes the point that there is no magic to good staffing (and promotion) deci-

sions and no such thing as an infallible judge of people.

If I put a person into a job and he or she does not perform, I have made a mistake. I have no

business blaming that person, no business invoking the ‘Peter Principle’, no business complain-

ing. I have made a mistake.

Drucker goes on to suggest five basic principles for matching jobs and people.

■ Think through the job requirements. Job descriptions may last a long time and

remain unchanged for many years. It is important to look at the nature of the job

and what is at the heart of the job.

■ Look at the number of potentially qualified people. Formal qualifications are a

minimum for consideration because their absence disqualifies the candidate auto-

matically. In order to make an effective decision the manager should look at three to

five qualified candidates.

■ Think hard about how to look at these candidates. The central question is the

strengths each possesses and are these the right strengths for the job.

■ Discuss each of the candidates with several people. All of us have first impres-

sions, prejudices, likes and dislikes. We need to listen to what other people think.

■ Make sure the appointee understands the job. After the appointee has been in a

new job for three to four months, he or she should be focusing on the demands of

that job rather than on the requirements of preceding jobs.

ACAS, for example, refer to the importance of the constant monitoring of the effective-

ness of the recruitment and induction process.

As with any work activity it is recommended that the recruitment and induction process be

reviewed for its effectiveness. If any stage of the recruitment process failed to produce the

expected result, e.g. if the advertising method has produced too many candidates, you may want

to examine what happened and why in order to make it more efficient in the future. Future recruit-

ment exercises may require modifications to the methods used – a successful recruitment for one

job does not necessarily mean the same method will be successful again. This is particularly true

if the labour market changes, with, for instance, fewer school leavers but more mature workers

being available. Recruitment and induction may be a continuous process in your organisation,

necessitating more or less constant monitoring. Monitoring regularly will also ensure equal

opportunity policies are being actively pursued, and that internal candidates are receiving the

same consideration as external candidates.

A crucial determinant of the success of recruitment, selection and induction is how

well the new member of staff adapts to the requirements of the organisation and

makes an effective contribution to the development of the organisation.

Despite dif-

ficulties in evaluation, this should be an ultimate measure of the effectiveness of the

recruitment and selection process.

CHAPTER 20 RESOURCING THE ORGANISATION

819

Monitoring

effectiveness

■ Whatever the structure of the organisation it has to be resourced with people of the

right quality. Most managers are likely to be faced with the frequent need to recruit

and select staff. Managers and supervisors should have at least some say in the

appointment of their own staff or those staff whose work they supervise. Procedures

for recruitment and selection must themselves be put into an organisational context.

Human resource planning provides the link between corporate objectives and organisa-

tion structure, and is the basis of a personnel management action programme.

■ There are three important considerations which should underlie the recruitment

and selection of staff: (i) the context of the overall human resource plan; (ii) how new

members of staff will fit into the cultural and social structure of the organisation; and

(iii) full compliance with all legal requirements and codes of practice relating to

employment and equal opportunities. In order to select the best available staff, and to

retain them for a reasonable length of time, the need is for a planned and systematic

approach to recruitment and selection. Central to such an approach is the process of

job analysis from which is derived, first, a job description, leading to, second, a person

specification.

■ It is important to have a thorough knowledge of how to attract suitable applicants

and methods of recruitment and selection. There are a variety of methods which can

be used in staff selection. The choice, combination and application should be appropri-

ate to the nature of the organisation, the vacant job and the number and nature of

candidates. Whatever selection process is adopted, it requires careful planning and

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

CRITICAL REFLECTIONS

‘For sake of academic discussion, what would you say is the single most important function in

any work organisation?’

‘You could well argue that it is effective recruitment and selection. Everything comes back to

people. If you don’t appoint staff with the right ability, temperament and willingness all these

fancy ideas on motivation, empowerment and commitment etc. aren’t likely to be much use.’

What are your own views?

The drive towards flexibility and changing work practices has seen the appearance of new forms

of work descriptions. For example, some organizations have begun to replace or complement job

descriptions with performance contracts. These contain details of what a job holder agrees to

accomplish over a period of time. It summarizes the purpose of a job, how the purpose will be

met over the time specified and how the achievement of objectives will be assessed.

Bratton, J. and Gold, J., Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice, Second edition, Macmillan (1999), p. 201.

How would you draw up a performance contract as a basis for recruitment and selec-

tion of a specific job?

‘An organisation’s need to discover as much information as possible about prospective candi-

dates so that sound selection decisions can be made outweighs an individual’s right to privacy.’

Debate.

SYNOPSIS

preparation. The other side of the selection process is the candidates’ assessment of you

and your organisation.

■ Group exercises, and selection tests and questionnaires may be used to supplement

the interview. Despite its criticisms, the interview is usually a central and indispensable

element of the selection process. A clear interview plan/checklist is necessary. If a panel

or board interview is used the plan can serve as a basis for division of questioning

among selectors. Interviewers should at all times show respect to candidates, be honest

and behave ethically. Skilled interviewers will know how to change their interview

style and form of questions according to the different behaviour of candidates, and the

extent of their social skills.

■ In most cases, a successful interview will contain a balance of open questions,

direct or closed questions, and reflective remarks or comments. Interviewers should

probe the candidate and ask meaningful, searching and practical questions.

Interviewers should listen with care and note the way a candidate responds to a ques-

tion. Growing attention is being given to the use of competencies as a basis for

effective recruitment and selection. If the selection decision is to be effective, good

reporting as well as good interviewing is important. The use of a grading scheme, for

example, might introduce some degree of objectivity. Induction and follow-up is an

important corollary of the seduction process.

■ Cost is obviously a major consideration in any selection process. However, costs

should be weighed against the costs of selection failure; the contributions from an effi-

cient and effective selection process, and benefits derived by the organisation, should

be taken into account. These benefits are not always readily apparent or easy to iden-

tify, but over a period of time help to give a possible indication of the success of the

selection process. However, there is no magic to good staffing decisions and no such

thing as an infallible judge of people.

CHAPTER 20 RESOURCING THE ORGANISATION

821

MANAGEMENT IN ACTION 20.1

Marks & Spencer PLC’s graduate selection process

We recruit centrally for our Graduate Management Scheme for

both our stores and Head Office. The disciplines recruited are:

1 Stores

– Selling

– HR

2 Head Office

– Information technology

– Finance

– Buying

– Food technology

Over the years, we have developed a rigorous and sophisti-

cated selection process to handle the thousands of

applications we receive each year for a commensurately

small number of vacancies (for example last year we had

nearly 7000 applications for 300 jobs). Due to the numbers

involved, and the specialist nature of the roles available,

Buying and Foods target specific universities that run relevant

degrees. The majority of our recruitment is for Stores, IT and

Finance which all have the same on-line testing application.

There are four stages to this:

1 An eligibility screener which looks at some key criteria, for

example eligibility to work in the UK, basic educational

qualifications, acceptance of conditions of employment on

the scheme.

2A verbal reasoning psychometric test.

3A numerical reasoning psychometric test.

4A talent screener, which is a self-assessment of a candi-

date’s motivators and drivers. This looks at whether a

candidate will be motivated by the demands of the job

such as leading a team, motivating others, selling, influ-

encing, challenging etc.



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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

The psychometric tests used have been proved to have a

direct correlation to performance at the assessment centre,

and the target jobs.

There is now no interview within the selection process.

The application system allows candidates to apply at a time

convenient to them, and gives an objective, robust assess-

ment of performance without any interviewer bias. The focus

throughout the selection is about the ability to demonstrate

talents, skills and knowledge as opposed to being able to sell

yourself. If a candidate progresses through all stages of the

on-line testing, their total scores are reviewed to decide

whether or not they are invited to an assessment centre.

THE ASSESSMENT CENTRE

The assessment centre is a one-day event where eight candi-

dates come together to perform a series of management

exercises designed to reflect the kinds of tasks/activities they

are likely to face on the job. The exercises give the candi-

dates the opportunity to demonstrate the effective behaviours

required for successful performance on the job.

Candidates at the centre are assessed

against Five Ways of Working:

■ Think customer – go the extra mile with

the customer. Listen to, focus on and

serve the customer. Be friendly.

■ Passionate about product – insist on

quality. Encourage innovation. Be proud.

■ Be one team – support and show

mutual respect. Work together, no status,

no game playing. Participate, trust,

encourage, share success, have fun.

■ Own your part in delivering results –

act with pace, be energetic, enthusiastic

and decisive. Take responsibility, and

be accountable. Suggest a solution, be

positive.

■ Be honest, confident, listen and learn –

strive to be the best, no cynicism, no

‘whingeing’. Challenge and value all contributions – cele-

brate success. Challenge the point not the person.

Reliability is derived from the opportunity to observe the cri-

teria in multiple situations (the exercises). Objectivity is

maintained as each assessor observes a different candidate

in each exercise, so no one assessor is able to make a deci-

sion about a candidate without sharing information with the

other assessors.

Each centre runs with eight candidates, a chairperson,

four assessors and an administrator. The exercises consist of

some group work, some individual work, analysis and report

writing. Centre design is reviewed regularly as are the exer-

cises, which have a limited shelf life.

Detailed evaluation conferences determine the decision to

employ or reject, and information gathered at the centre is

used to compile a strength and development needs profile

that is fed back to successful candidates on joining and used

to focus initial training.

I am grateful to Marcus Powell, Head of Learning and Development and John

McElwee, Graduate and Business Placement Programme Campaign Manager,

Marks & Spencer PLC for providing this information.

1 Why is the recruitment and selection of staff the concern of all managers in an organisa-

tion? What are the prerequisites of an effective recruitment and selection policy?

2 Explain the importance of, and main stages involved in, organisational human resource

planning. What do you understand by a personnel management action programme?

3 Give your views on: (i) the fundamental considerations which should underlie the recruit-

ment and selection of staff; and (ii) the basic stages in a planned and systematic approach

to recruitment and selection.

REVIEW AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Management in Action 20.1 continued

Photo: Marks & Spencer

CHAPTER 20 RESOURCING THE ORGANISATION

823

4 Central to a systematic approach to staff selection is the process of ‘knowing the job and

the person to do it’. Explain how you would ensure this process is carried out effectively in

a large organisation.

5 Assess critically the main methods of staff selection, apart from the interview, and give

examples of when each method might be most appropriate.

6 Draw up (i) a suggested selection interview plan; and (ii) a suggested grading scheme for

reporting the interview. Make clear the nature of the appointment to which your interview

plan and grading scheme refer.

7 Discuss the main points to bear in mind in adopting an appropriate interviewing style. Give

your own examples of the different types of questions that might be asked.

8 Critically assess the value and application of a competency-based approach to recruitment

and selection.

9 Suggest how the management of an organisation might attempt to evaluate the effective-

ness of its recruitment and selection process. Give practical examples relating to your own

organisation.

In self-selected groups of three of four, in either your own, or some other large organisation or

large department of an organisation:

a Investigate the nature, format and contents of the HR planning – with particular attention to

the extent to which it provides an analysis of existing staffing resources – for example by

skills, qualifications, special abilities or experience, gender, age, and including the

frequency and methods by which this analysis is updated.

b Comment critically on the extent to which the organisation has an effective personnel

management action programme and how this operates in practice.

In self-selected groups of three or four, in either your own, or some other large organisation or

a large department of an organisation:

a Investigate carefully the recruitment and selection process and comment critically on:

(i) the extent and manner of the process of job analysis;

(ii) measures taken to attract a range of suitable applicants;

(iii) the application of different methods of selection;

(iv) the use of (1) an interview plan/checklist and (2) a grading scheme.

b State clearly the recommendations you would make in order to help improve the effective-

ness of the recruitment and selection process.

ASSIGNMENT 1

ASSIGNMENT 2

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PART 7 MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES

OBJECTIVES

Completing this exercise should help you to enhance the following skills:

 Break a job down into specific tasks and responsibilities.

 Detail what you believe are the likely difficulties and distastes of the job.

 Assess criteria for successful performance of the job.

EXERCISE

For a selected particular position within your own, or some other organisation, you are

required to:

1 Prepare a detailed job description and person specification.

2 Record those aspects of the job that both (a) the job holder and (b) you, regard as:

– especially demanding or hard to perform competently; and

– especially tedious or unpleasant.

3 Identify clearly the main competencies you believe necessary for successful performance

of the job.

DISCUSSION

■ Why do you think some people are happy undertaking jobs that other people would

not enjoy?

■ What specific aspects of a job would you find especially difficult or distasteful?

■ If you were responsible for recruiting staff to what extent would you be tempted to conceal

the difficulties and distastes of a job?

■ Should people applying for a job be given the opportunity to see the person specification?

Visit our website www.booksites.net/mullins for further questions, annotated weblinks,

case material and Internet research material.

PERSONAL AWARENESS AND SKILLS EXERCISE