Mises, Ludwig von. Theory and History: An Interpretation of Social and Economic Evolution
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THEORY AND HISTORY
AN INTERPRETATION OF SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC EVOLUTION
LUDWIG VON MlSES
PREFACE BY MURRAY N. ROTHBARD
Lubwia
von Mises
Institute
AUBURN,
ALABAMA
All rights reserved. Written permission must be secured from
the publisher to use or reproduce any part of this book, except
for brief quotations in critical reviews or articles.
Copyright © 1957 by Yale University Press
Reprinted in 1969 by Arlington House
Copyright © 1985 by Margit von Mises
Reprint in 2007 by the Ludwig von Mises Institute
Ludwig von Mises Institute, 518 West Magnolia Avenue,
Auburn, Alabama 36832 U.S.A.; www.mises.org
ISBN: 978-1-933550-19-0
Contents
PREFACE BY MURRAY N. ROTHBARD xi
INTRODUCTION
1.
Methodological Dualism 1
2.
Economics and Metaphysics 3
3.
Regularity and Prediction 4
4.
The Concept of the Laws of Nature 5
5.
The Limitations of Human Knowledge 8
6. Regularity and Choosing 9
7.
Means and Ends 12
PART ONE
VALUE
CHAPTER 1. JUDGMENTS OF VALUE
1.
Judgments of Value and Propositions of Existence ... .19
2.
Valuation and Action 20
3.
The Subjectivity of Valuation 22
4.
The Logical and Syntactical Structure
of Judgments of Value 23
CHAPTER 2. KNOWLEDGE AND VALUE
1.
The Bias Doctrine 26
2.
Common Weal versus Special Interests 28
3.
Economics and Value 32
4.
Bias and Intolerance 34
CHAPTER 3. THE QUEST FOR ABSOLUTE VALUES
1.
The Issue 35
2.
Conflicts with Society 37
vi CONTENTS
3.
A Remark on the Alleged Medieval Unanimity 42
4.
The Idea of Natural Law 44
5.
Revelation 49
6. Atheistic Intuition 50
7.
The Idea of Justice 51
8. The Utilitarian Doctrine Restated 55
9. On Aesthetic Values 61
10.
The Historical Significance of the Quest for
Absolute Values 63
CHAPTER 4. THE NEGATION OF VALUATION
PART TWO
DETERMINISM AND MATERIALISM
CHAPTER 5. DETERMINISM AND ITS CRITICS
1.
Determinism 73
2.
The Negation of Ideological Factors 75
3.
The Free-Will Controversy 76
4.
Foreordination and Fatalism 78
5.
Determinism and Penology 82
6. Determinism and Statistics 84
7.
The Autonomy of the Sciences of Human Action 92
CHAPTER 6. MATERIALISM
1.
Two Varieties of Materialism 94
2.
The Secretion Analogy 97
3.
The Political Implications of Materialism 99
CHAPTER 7. DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
1.
Dialectics and Marxism 102
2.
The Material Productive Forces 106
CONTENTS vii
3.
The Class Struggle 112
4.
The Ideological Impregnation of Thought 122
5.
The Conflict of Ideologies 130
6. Ideas and Interests 133
7.
The Class Interests of the Bourgeoisie 142
8. The Critics of Marxism 147
9. Marxian Materialism and Socialism 155
CHAPTER 8. PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
1.
The Theme of History 159
2.
The Theme of the Philosophy of History 162
3.
The Difference between the Point of View of History
and That of Philosophy of History 166
4.
Philosophy of History and the Idea of God 171
5.
Activistic Determinism and Fatalistic Determinism . . .177
PART THREE
EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF HISTORY
CHAPTER 9. THE CONCEPT OF HISTORICAL INDIVIDUALITY
1.
The Ultimate Given of History 183
2.
The Role of the Individual in History 184
3.
The Chimera of the Group Mind 188
4.
Planning History 195
CHAPTER 10. HISTORICISM
1.
The Meaning of Historicism 198
2.
The Rejection of Economics 205
3.
The Quest for Laws of Historical Change 210
4.
Historicist Relativism 214
5.
Dissolving History 219
viii CONTENTS
6. Undoing History 227
7.
Undoing Economic History 234
CHAPTER 11. THE CHALLENGE OF SCIENTISM
1.
Positivism and Behaviorism 240
2.
The Collectivist Dogma 250
3.
The Concept of the Social Sciences 256
4.
The Nature of Mass Phenomena 259
CHAPTER 12. PSYCHOLOGY AND THYMOLOGY
1.
Naturalistic Psychology and Thymology 264
2.
Thymology and Praxeology 271
3.
Thymology as a Historical Discipline 272
4.
History and Fiction 274
5.
Rationalization 280
6. Introspection 283
CHAPTER 13. MEANING AND USE OF THE STUDY OF HISTORY
1.
The Why of History 285
2.
The Historical Situation 286
3.
History of the Remote Past 289
4.
Falsifying History 291
5.
History and Humanism 293
6. History and the Rise of Aggressive Nationalism 296
7.
History and Judgments of Value 298
CHAPTER 14. THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL FEATURES OF HISTORY
1.
Prediction in the Natural Sciences 303
2.
History and Prediction 305
3.
The Specific Understanding of History 309
4.
Thymological Experience 312
5.
Real Types and Ideal Types 315
CONTENTS ix
PART FOUR
THE COURSE OF HISTORY
CHAPTER 15. PHILOSOPHICAL INTERPRETATIONS OF HISTORY
1.
Philosophies of History and Philosophical
Interpretations of History 323
2.
Environmentalism 324
3.
The Egalitarians' Interpretation of History 326
4.
The Racial Interpretation of History 332
5.
The Secularism of Western Civilization 337
6. The Rejection of Capitalism by Antisecularism 340
CHAPTER 16. PRESENT-DAY TRENDS AND THE FUTURE
1.
The Reversal of the Trend toward Freedom 347
2.
The Rise of the Ideology of Equality
in Wealth and Income 351
3.
The Chimera of a Perfect State of Mankind 362
4.
The Alleged Unbroken Trend toward Progress 367
5.
The Suppression of "Economic" Freedom 370
6. The Uncertainty of the Future 378
INDEX 381
Preface
LUDWIG von Mises published many books and articles
in his long and productive life, each of them making
important contributions to the theory and application
of economic science. But there stands out among them
four towering masterpieces, immortal monuments to
the work of the greatest economist and scientist of
human action of our century. The first, which estab-
lished Mises in the front rank of economists, was The
Theory of Money and Credit (1912), which for the first
time integrated the theory of money and the theory of
relative prices, and outlined his later theory of the
business cycle. Mises's second great work was Social-
ism (1922), which provided the definitive, comprehen-
sive critique of socialism and demonstrated that a
socialist order could not calculate economically. The
third was his stupendous treatise Human Action
(1949),
which set forth an entire structure of econom-
ics and analysis of acting man. All three of these works
have made their mark in economics, and have been
featured in the "Austrian" revival that has flowered in
the United States over the past decade.
XI