Leiter S.L. Historical Dictionary of Japanese Traditional Theatre

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Editor’s Foreword

Few countries have as rich a tradition of theatre as Japan, and this book

on ‘‘Japanese traditional theatre’’ deals with the most prominent and

vital strands: no

, kyo

gen, bunraku, and kabuki. Just how rich this tradi-

tion is can readily be seen from the fact that these four include both

comedy and tragedy (and mixtures thereof), plays, puppetr y, acting,

music, and dance. All of these are distinctive, as are the costumes,

masks, wigs, and even the shape of the theatre. They provide—for initi-

ates and amateurs alike—a complete theatrical experience that cannot

be obtained elsewhere, which will explain why they remain popular in

Japan, although not so popular that they could ﬂourish as they do with-

out the support of their fans and also of government and corporations.

This longevity can be traced to the circumstance that, despite the weight

of tradition, all four have repeatedly been renovated and sometimes

almost reinvented in new forms and with new plays and playwrights, to

say nothing of new generations of actors and their own hit stars. Not

only are these four types of theatre holding their own in Japan, they

have—especially since the end of World War II—become increasingly

known and enjoyed abroad.

Yet, for many foreigners they remain a bit remote. This is only partly

due to inhibitions of language. More signiﬁcant is that non-Japanese

(and many Japanese themselves) are familiar with neither the conven-

tions and practices of these genres nor with the historical context of

most plays. They can enjoy the visual and emotional aspects but a

deeper understanding of context and terminology would help. Providing

access to this context and terminology is, among other things, the pur-

pose of this Historical Dictionary of Japanese Traditional Theatre.It

provides, in the chronology, a summary history of over seven centuries

of Japanese theatre, and a more substantial history of each of the four

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x • EDITOR’S FOREWORD

types in the introduction. But, even without intending to, these sections

and the dictionary offer very useful insights into Japanese history as

such, the role of the theatre therein, and a feeling for the kinds of stories

that should be put on the stage. Other entries provide useful information

about acting, music, and dance, about the playhouses and their features,

and the trick and special effects they permit, about the actors, dancers,

chanters, and playwrights, about the trends and fashions, the traditions

and revolutions. Last but not least, the glossary and list of play title

translations overcome part of the language barrier. Once over the initial

hurdle, there is no doubt that many readers will seek further knowledge

through the works listed in the bibliography.

Japanese traditional theatre, any form of theatre, is not there just to

be understood (although that helps) but to be enjoyed. So it is good to

have a guide who not only enjoys that form of theatre but enjoys con-

veying this to others. Samuel L. Leiter ﬁts the bill on both accounts. He

was initiated into Japanese theatre in the early 1960s, became fascinated

by it, and has returned to Japan many times since, either as a student,

researcher, or professor. He edited the world’s leading journal on Asian

theatre for a dozen years and is currently editing a comprehensive ency-

clopedia of Asian theatre. Most signiﬁcantly, he is one of the most

widely published Western s pe cial ists of Japane se th eatr e, es peci ally

kabuki. But his interests reach much further, since he has also published

encyclopedic books on Shakespeare, the history of New York theatre,

and the great stage directors, American and international. Thus, it was

fortunate that he could ﬁnd the time to distil the essentials of Japanese

traditional theatre in this handy, practical, and readable guide.

Jon Woronoff

Series Editor

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Acknowledgments

I am enormously indebted to Prof. Kei Hibino of Seikei University,

Tokyo. Prof. Hibino not only arranged for my stay at his university’s

International House during a research trip in 2004, he was a never-end-

ing source of information regarding the countless questions that inevita-

bly arise when doing research in Japanese sources. He also helped in

gaining permission for several of the photographs. Prof. Richard

Emmert of Musashino Women’s University, Tokyo, was an extremely

helpful source of support whenever I had a pesky question about no

.He

also arranged for the use of the no

photographs by Masuda Sho

this book. Prof. Jonah Salz of Ryu

koku University, Kyoto, offered

assistance on kyo

gen-related questions. Profs. Etsuko Terasaki and C.

Andrew Gerstle kindly responded to bibliographical inquiries. I am

grateful for a PSC-CUNY Research Foundation grant that allowed me

to do research in Japan in 2004. The cover illustration was created by

Michael Werthwein. And I wish to thank my wife, Marcia, for patiently

seeing me through yet another project that glued me to my desk.

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Reader’s Note

Japan is one of the world’s theatrically abundant nations. It continues

to preserve many ancient forms while gaining international renown for

being on the cutting edge of contemporary developments. The best

known of its ancient (or premodern) genres are bunraku, kabuki, kyo

gen, and no

. These genres are the focus of the present book, although

occasional reference is made to other forms. The number of potential

dictionary entries for the four principal genres is enormous. Each genre

could be the subject of a thick, separate volume, which is indeed the

case in Japanese sources. Thus, a great degree of selectivity has to be

exercised when covering all these genres within a single tome. The

entries in this book cover individuals, technical terms, important docu-

ments, and theatres. For plot summaries readers are referred to one of

the following works, which cover the over 500 no

and kyo

gen plays,

and the over 300 still-produced kabuki (and shin kabuki) plays: O’Neill,

A Guide to No

(1953); Kenny, A Guide to Kyo

gen (1990); Hironaga,

Bunraku: Japan’s Unique Puppet Theatre (1964); Halford and Halford,

The Kabuki Handbook (1956); and Leiter, New Kabuki Encyclopedia

(1997).

The spelling of Japanese terms in roman letters is decidedly inconsis-

tent from one source to another. Terms that appear as a single word in

one source may appear as two in another. Some sources use hyphens to

separate elements in a term; others do not. What is capitalized in one

source may be in lowercase elsewhere. The approach used in this book

may not precisely match what readers will ﬁnd in other references but

I have tried to make it as consistent as possible. A couple of things that

readers may notice are the following: when the word mono (‘‘thing,

play, item,’’ etc.) appears as part of a term, it is given as a separate

word, as in sewa mono, but when goto (from koto, meaning something

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xiv • READER’S NOTE

like mono) is part of a term, it is connected to the word it follows, as in

aragoto. In a sense, these usages are an attempt to reconcile some of

the inconsistencies that prevail in publications dealing with Japanese

theatre; the danger, of course, is that they will themselves be deemed

inconsistent, which is why I offer this note of caution.

Titles are given throughout in Japanese; translations for all bunraku,

kabuki, kyo

gen, and no

plays—including modern plays in these styles—

mentioned in the text are provided in a special Play Title Translations

section. Translations for titles of most other plays or nondramatic works

are provided following the Japanese title when mentioned. Inclusi ve

dates for historical periods are given in the introductory chapter on the

history of the four genres, but not in the Dictionary entries; for those a

Simpliﬁed Table of Japanese Historical Periods has been provided, even

though only a small number of the periods listed are actually cited in

the text.

Finally, Japanese names are given in their original order, family

name ﬁrst.

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Chronology

a) For all entries after 1603, where appropriate, N/KY refers to events

related to no

and or kyo

gen, B to bunraku, and K to kabuki. Wher-

ever items are related to more than one form, either multiple letters

are used or none are used at all.

b) No

and kyo

gen were widely known as sarugaku (sarugaku no kyo

gen and sarugaku no no

) until the late 19th century; in this chronol-

ogy, however, sarugaku is used for entries until 1352, after which

or kyo

gen are used as appropriate.

c) Similarly, although the traditional puppet theatre was usually called

ningyo

ruri—bunraku not becoming common until the 1870s—

bunraku is used to refer to it from its inception in earlier forms, such

as jo

ruri and kojo

ruri.

d) This chronology is highly selective. It also does not include theatre-

related events prior to the 14th century.

e) Many bunraku and kabuki plays are known by several titles. For the

most part, straight play titles are given here in their full, formal style.

Thus, Aotozo

shi Hana no Nishiki-e is given instead of Benten Kozo.

Dance titles, however, are given in their short form.

f) Apart from several 14th-century play titles that are translated here,

translations of play titles will be found in the Play Title Translations

section.

1301 Takigi sarugaku performed at the Great South Gate, Kofuku-ji

Temple, which becomes principal site for takigi (‘‘torchlight’’) perform-

ances.

1333 Kamakura shogunate collapses. Kan’ami Kiyotsugu, considered

founder of no

, born.

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xvi • CHRONOLOGY

1334 Priests of Kokubun-ji Temple, Tango, perform comic ennen

called Okashi (Funny); considered ﬁrst record of a kyo

gen play.

1339 First known subscription (kanjin) sarugaku, Zenrin-ji Temple,

Kishu

1349 Dengaku and sarugaku performed at special festival, Kasu ga

Shrine, Nara. Shogun Ashikaga Takauji views subscription perform-

ance of dengaku by Hon za and Shin za troupes in riverbed, Shijo

Kyoto, when galleries collapse; many deaths and injuries sustained.

1352 Priests at Ninpei-ji Temple, Suo

,performYamabushi Seppo

(The Mountain Ascetic’s Sermon) during ennen presentation. Docu-

mentation offers ﬁrst use of word kyo

gen.

1363 Traditional date of Zeami Motokiyo’s birt h (alternate theor y:

1364). Kanze troupe (za) formed around this time.

1365 Around this time, Kan’ami includes kusemai segment in his

play Shirohige, which revolutionizes no

1374 Kan’ami and Zeami perform at Inagumano Shrine before sho-

gun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, leading to his patronage of them (alternate

theory: 1375). Auspicious play Shikisanba (Three Ceremonial Pieces),

usually acted by senior member of company, played by troupe leader

Kan’ami, setting precedent for future performances.

1378 Zeami attends Gion Festival in company of Yoshimitsu, sharing

his gallery seat; conservative nobles disturbed.

1384 Kan’ami presents ceremonial religious no

(ho

raku no

), Asama

Shrine, Suruga. Shortly afterward, he dies in that area. Zeami becomes

head of Kanze troupe.

1408 Emperor Gokomatsu views dengaku starring Inuo

at shogun’s

Kitayama palace. Yoshimitsu dies soon after.

1411 Ashikaga Yoshimochi becomes shogun and patronizes dengaku

actor Zo

ami, beginning a decade of court-supported subscription per-

formances as Zeami gradually loses favor.

1414 Zeami transcribes no

play Naniwa, oldest extant no

script.

1422 Zeami

becomes

Buddhist priest. Son Motomasa succeeds him

as third head (tayu

) of Kanze troupe.

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CHRONOLOGY • xvii

1423 Ashikaga Yoshikazu becomes shogun.

1427 Kanze Saburo

Motoshige (On’ami) patronized by shogun Ashi-

kaga Yoshinori, who rejects Zeami.

1428 Yoshimochi dies. Ashikaga Yoshinori becomes shogun.

1429 Spectacular performance of no

at To

nomine: 15 plays performed

and two Kanze troupes (Motomasa’s and On’ami’s) compete with

sho

and Juˆnigoro

troupes on shogunal grounds; some characters

appear on horseback in real armor. Shortly afterward, Yoshinori forbids

Zeami and Motomasa from performing at Sento

Imperial Palace. Zeami

experiences continual disfavor, as Motoshige becomes shogun’s

favorite.

1430 Motoyoshi leaves acting for priesthood.

1432 Motomasa dies before a performance at Ise. Zeami writes

Museki Isshi (A Page on the Remnant of a Dream), lamenting imminent

doom of troupe.

1434 Zeami, 73, exiled to Sado Island and sends letter to Zenchiku.

1441 Yoshinori assassinated by Mitsusuke and son while watching no

at Akamatsu Mitsusuke’s mansion.

1443 Zeam i, pa rd oned some time in late 1430 s, wi dely beli eved to

have died this year.

1449 Ashikaga Yoshimasa becomes shogun.

1453 Yoshimasa begins to patronize Motoshige. Kanze troupe

becomes most favored of shogunate.

1458 Motoshige becomes priest and changes name to On’ami. Masa-

mori becomes Kanze troupe leader.

1464 Kanze and Ho

sho

troupes begin annual participation in To

nomi-

ne no

, alternating annually with Konparu and Kongo

troupes until end

of Muromachi period.

1467–1477 O

nin Rebellion creates major unrest. Yamato no

troupes

suffer great losses.

1474 All four Yamato no

troupes refuse to perform takigi no

Kofuku-ji Temple because of insufﬁcient rice rations.

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xviii • CHRONOLOGY

1490 Shogun Yoshimasa dies.

1519 Kanze and Konparu schools begin to publish books of plays

(utai bon) for use by amateurs.

1530 B Recorded mentions of jo

ruri begin.

1544 Dispute between Kongo

and Konparu troupes regarding order of

precedence at Kasuga Wakamiya festival. Decision favoring Kongo

leads other three schools not to participate.

1560 B Records of ebisu kaki puppet performances begin to appear.

1562 B Puppets perform biblical scenes on Christian holidays. Jabi-

sen, predecessor of shamisen, enters Japan from Ryu

kyu

Islands around

this time; ﬁrst appears at Sakai. Becomes widely popular as instrument

for narrative accompaniment, especially of tales about Princess Jo

ruri

and Ushiwakamaru (Yoshitsune) that become known as jo

ruri.

1568 Kanze Motomori (So

kin) and Konparu Yasuteru (Zenkyoku)

perform at ceremony honoring Yoshiteru’s accession to shogun.

1571 Kanze Tayu

Mototada (So

setsu) and Kanze Motohisa perform

for Tokugawa Ieyasu at Hamamatsu, Enshuˆ. Ieyasu participates. K

Large-scale furyu

dance performed during Obon festival, Kyoto; furyu

a popular group dance predecessor of kabuki odori.

1573 Fall of Ashikaga shogunate.

1578 Tensho

Kyo

gen Bon (Tensho

Period Kyo

gen Book), oldest col-

lection of kyo

gen synopses, published.

1582 Oda Nobunaga and guests, including To kugawa Ieyasu, view

kusemai by Ko

waka Kuro

hachiro

and no

by Umewaka Tayuˆ at So

ken-

emple, Azuchi. K Shrine maidens from Izumo Grand Shrine per-

form sacred and popular dances/songs in Kyoto. Possible predecessor to

Izumo no Okuni, founder of kabuki and alleged Izumo shrine priestess.

1588 Hongan-ji Temple administrator Shimotsuma Sho

shin performs

at his estate and at the temple. Thereafter, he achieves greater suc-

cess than any of leaders of four Yamato troupes.

1592 Under Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s sponsorship, all schools of no

per-

form at Kasuga Wakamiya Shrine festival for ﬁrst time in almost 40

years.

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