Kutz M. Handbook of materials selection

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1412 COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 51 Installation of all-composite bridge deck of NY 367 over Bentley Creek, Chemung

County, New York (2000). (Courtesy of New York DOT, Region 6, Hornell, NY)

Fig. 52 Pultruded Interlocking composite deck developed by West Virginia University

(GangaRao, 2000).

The latest application of all-composite deck for a highway steel bridge has

been initiated by Caltrans. A hybrid (carbon/E-glass) sandwich composite deck

developed by Martin Marietta (Fig. 53) is planned to be installed at the Schuyler

Heim steel lift bridge in Long Beach, California. The 1212 ft (370 m) long,

four-lane bridge provides vehicles access to Terminal Island in the Port of Long

Beach. The middle lift portion of this bridge uses a 224-ft, (68.3-m) lightweight

open-grated steel deck. Due to the high volume of heavy trucks crossing the

bridge in the recent year, the welded steel deck suffered from a chronic fatigue

problem, and Caltrans was forced to replace portions of the steel deck periodi-

cally. Due to the excellent fatigue performance of composites, the preferred

choice was replacing the existing steel deck with all-composite hybrid deck

system (Hranac, 2001). Small- and full-scale tests were conducted on several

2 CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES 1413

Fig. 53 All-composite hybrid deck system for the Schuyler Heim Bridge, Long Beach,

California. (Courtesy of Martin Marietta Composites)

Fig. 54 Full-scale destructive tests on all-composite hybrid deck system for the

Schuyler Heim Bridge, Long Beach, California. (Courtesy of University of California, Irvine,

and California State University, Fullerton)

composite panels at both California State University at Fullerton and University

of California at Irvine (refer to Fig. 54). Test results indicated that the FRP

composite deck has exceeded both the strength and stiffness criteria required by

the DOT. The composite deck will be instrumented with different measuring

devices and will be monitored for a period of approximately one year. Details

of the structural evaluation are reported by Mosallam and Haroun (2001). The

destructive test was simulated using a state-of-the-art virtual testing/progressive

analysis software called GENOA (Alpha Star, 2001) as shown in Fig. 55.

In Europe, several all-composite bridges and bridge decks have been built.

The world’s ﬁrst all-composite cable-stayed footbridge (called the Aberteldy

Bridge) was constructed in Scotland and opened on June 2, 1992. The Aberteldy

1414 COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 55 Full-scale simulated destructive test using GENOA Progressive failure program. (Cour-

tesy of Alpha Star Corporation, Long Beach, California)

Fig. 56 Aberteldy all-composites cable-stay bridge. (Courtesy of Strongwell Company)

Bridge is 2.2 m (7.2 ft) in width and total span of 113 m (370 ft), with a

mainspan of 63 m (206 ft) between the two A-frame composite pylons, as shown

in Fig. 56. The height of each composite A-frame pylon that support the main-

span with Kevlar composite fan-type cables is 17.20 m (56.43 ft). The structural

components of the bridge deck, A-frame pylons, and handrails were all made

of GFRP, while the cable stays were made of dry parallel aramid ﬁbers (Kevlar

49) in polyethylene sheaths. The total cost of the bridge was about $200,000

(£120,000), in addition to some donated labor. After nearly 10 years of service,

slight sagging of the bridge occurred that can be attributed to the viscoelastic

nature and the low modulus of aramid cables. Table 6 presents the physical and

2 CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSITES 1415

Table 6 Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Different Composite Components of

the Aberfeldy Bridge

Composite Materials

and Properties Deck/Pylons Cable Stays

Fibers E glass (Kevlar䉸 49)

Matrix Isophthalic polyester resin None

Manufacturing pro-

cess

Pultrusion Parallel Sheathing

Assembly Toggle and epoxy bonding —

Adhesives Epoxy —

Tensile modulus 22 GPa (3.2

⫻ 10

psi) 127 GPa (18.4 ⫻ 10

psi)

Tensile strength 300 MPa (4.3 ksi) 1.9 GPa (276 ksi)

Ultimate tensile strain 1.4% 1.6%

From FHWA (1997).

Fig. 57 Fiberline all-composite cable-stayed in Denmark.

(Courtesy of Fiberline Composites A / S)

the mechanical properties of the different composite components of the Aber-

feldy Bridge (FHWA, 1997).

A similar all-PFRP-composite pedestrian cable-stayed bridge was built by

Fiberline Company (Kolding, Denmark) crossing a busy rail line and was ofﬁ-

cially opened on June 18, 1997 (Fig. 57). Although the construction work was

restricted to only a few hours during weekend nights due to the busy railway

line, restricted installation work to only the bridge was fully installed in only

three short nights. The short installation time has illustrated the clear advantages

of composites.

In 1997, an all-composite bridge was installed in the mountainous region of

Pontresina in Switzerland (refer to Fig. 58). The two bridge sections, each mea-

suring 12.5 m (41 ft) and weighing a total of 2,500 kg, were placed by a heli-

copter, one section at a time. The load-carrying capacity of this bridge is 500

kg/m

, in addition to a 1-ton snow-clearing vehicle allowance.

1416 COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 58 Pontresina all-composite truss bridge constructed in Switzerland in 1997.

(Courtesy of Fiberline Composites A / S)

Fig. 59 Optimized patented pultruded proﬁle for modular composite highway bridge

deck applications. (Courtesy of Fiberline Composites A/ S)

Currently, a new generation of optimized pultruded proﬁles for a modular

bridge deck is being developed through the ASSET project supported by the

European Union. The pultruded sections are being manufactured by Fiberline

Composites A/S of Denmark. This bridge is considered the ﬁrst highway bridge

that has a load capacity up to 40 tons and will be constructed across a motorway

in Oxfordshire in England during the summer of 2002. Figure 59 shows one of

the proﬁles that will be used in this composite bridge deck. A comprehensive

review of other composite bridges can be found in the FHWA report (1997).

3 DEVELOPMENT OF CODES AND STANDARDS

In recent years, the construction industry started to realize the potential of using

polymer composites in construction applications. Unfortunately, the construction

industry and the civil engineers were faced with a tremendous amount of difﬁ-

culties to utilize these materials in the same manner they are used to for the

3 DEVELOPMENT OF CODES AND STANDARDS 1417

conventional material such as steel, concrete, and wood. The major obstacle is

the lack of design standards and authoritative codes for the use of these materials

in construction applications. Despite the fact that there is a great deal of research

and application information available from the aerospace industry for the past

four decades or so, still the civil engineers are searching for ways to convince

them with the reliability, applicability, and the structural efﬁciency of such ma-

terials. The Structural Composites and Plastics Committee (SCAP) of the Amer-

ican Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) appreciates this demand and is working

to assist the civil engineers to achieve this goal.

For any structural system, design standards are one the essential requirements

for professional engineers’ acceptance. Both the American Concrete Institute

(ACI) and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has been involved

in the development of several standard documents for different materials and

systems. Since the 1960s, the ASCE has been involved in developing several

engineering documents dealing with both unreinforced and ﬁber-reinforced poly-

mers (FRP) materials and systems. In 1984, the ASCE Structural Plastics Design

Manual (SPDM) was published (1984) by the Plastic Research Council of the

Materials Division of ASCE. Starting in the late 1980s, as the demand and the

acceptance of FRP materials increased, the ASCE recognized the need for more

developments in this ﬁeld. Jointly with the Society of Plastics Industry (SPI), a

long-range, multiphase program was established in the early 1990s. The ultimate

goal of this joint program is to develop accepted standards for structural design,

fabrication, and erection of FRP composite systems. In 1995, the Pultrusion

Industry Council (PIC) of SPI sponsored the ﬁrst phase of this program to de-

velop a design draft standard or a ‘‘prestandard’’ document with a view to pro-

cess the prestandard upon completion as an ASCE national consensus standard

in accordance with the rules of the American National Standard Institute (ANSI).

In late 1995, ASCE awarded phase I of this project to Chambers Engineering,

p.c. (as the general contractor) and the author (as the subcontractor) to undertake

a one-year startup and planning phase of the multiphase standard program. The

scope of work of phase I was to (i) surveying and evaluating existing design

and martial information. This task included researching both published and un-

published technical literature, government and university reports, performance

data, standards and speciﬁcation documents (ASTM, ACI, ASCE, JSCE, Euro-

code, Canada), manufacturer’s materials data, and current practice relative to the

use of FRP composites. (ii) Development of a computerized database containing

the relevant and evaluated useful technical information, (iii) using this database,

identify gaps in knowledge that might impede promulgation of the standard, and

(iv) developing the prestandard outline through deﬁning the approach including

recommended design philosophy and relationship of the ASCE design standard

with other martial or industry standards such as AASHTO, ASTM, ISO, ICBO,

and other test standards.

In 1993, the American Concrete Institute realized the potential of the polymer

composites in concrete applications. For that reason, a new committee (ACI440)

was formed to answer the needs of this new industry and to provide guidelines

for design, speciﬁcations, and applications of polymer composites as external

and internal reinforcement systems. Due to the rapid increase of new polymer

composite products and applications, the ACI440 committee was divided into

1418 COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

several subcommittees focusing on different design and application aspects of

polymer composites in concrete applications. This includes subcommittees on

internal reinforcements (FRP rebars), FRP prestressing, FRP external repair, ed-

ucation, and others. One of the active subcommittees is the ACI440 subcom-

mittee on FRP external reinforcements (ACI440F). The ACI440 committee is

currently in the ﬁnal development phase of a design and construction of exter-

nally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures document that

will be available shortly to the public. The information presented in the docu-

ment will assist the structural engineer in properly selecting and designing an

optimum and reliable FRP system. The documents also describe conditions

where FRP strengthening is beneﬁcial and where its use may be limited.

In 1997, the International Conference for Building Ofﬁcials (ICBO) evalua-

tion services produced acceptance criteria (AC125) for seismic repair and re-

habilitation of reinforced concrete members and walls. Unlike the ACI current

proposed document, AC125 focused more on applications related to seismic

design. However, the document has been reviewed recently by the different ex-

perts and some modiﬁcations have been suggested and will be incorporated in

the near future.

Lately, the author has developed the ASCE Structural Design Manual on

Pultruded Composite Joints and will be available in 2002. The manual consists

of 12 chapters covering a wide range of design topics related to joining PFRP

frame structures (Mosallam, 2001).

4 NEW STRATEGY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

One of the major questions that need to be answered clearly for the structural

engineer who has been dealing for decades with conventional materials such as

steel and concrete is: Why should he or she select this new material? The same

question was asked 40 years ago when composites were ﬁrst introduced to the

aerospace industry. The answer of this question to the civil engineering com-

munity is not as simple as many engineers think. The complexity lays on the

apparent burden that this engineer will face and the sacriﬁces expected by deal-

ing with more advanced design and relatively complex structural material. Some

of these fears are: (i) the absence of authoritative codes and material speciﬁca-

tions, (ii) the lack of simplistic design procedures similar to those that have been

established for centuries for conventional materials (concrete, steel, wood), (iii)

the direct involvement of the structural engineer in the manufacturing and the

tailoring of the material, (iv) the lack of long-term structural and environmental

test data, and lastly (v) the need of relatively skilled labors at both the fabrication

and construction sites, as compared with composite materials. The effective tool

to overcome these roadblocks, in the author’s opinion, is education. First, the

construction industry should be educated about the nature of these materials and

the associated beneﬁts, as well as the special mechanical properties of PFRP

composites such as the anisotropy and the viscoelasticity. Second, a modiﬁed or

new civil engineering curriculum should be established that includes several

composite design courses similar to those for steel, wood, and concrete. Gen-

eration of structural engineers equipped with the skills required for adopting

advanced composites. This, of course, requires the establishment of a design

code and speciﬁcations. Recently, positive movements by the different engi-

4 NEW STRATEGY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 1419

neering and industrial organizations have been initiated to pursue this important

task. For example, a new subcommittee of the ASCE plastics and structural

composites has been formed to initiate an initial proposal for establishing an

ASCE code for composites. The Pultrusion Industry Council (PIC) of the Society

of Plastic Industry has already initiated the ﬁrst phase of a structural design

manual project.

It is also important to identify several facts for the civil engineer who will be

introduced to FRP composites for the ﬁrst time. First, the fact that he or she for

decades has been using some form of composites with no difﬁculties (e.g., re-

inforced concrete, natural, and laminated wood). Second, the engineer should

understand that the aim of using FRP composites is neither to replace nor to

compete with other construction industries such as concrete, steel, wood, etc. In

contrast, these materials are here to enhance and assist the conventional materials

in certain applications beyond their capabilities. In addition, these materials if

used properly with other conventional materials can produce an optimum engi-

neered structural ‘‘system’’ capable of solving many problems associated with

our infrastructures. This misconception has led to both confusion and defensive

position of loyal concrete, steel, and wood users. The fact is composites are the

right choice in some applications when other construction materials are dis-

qualiﬁed in part or whole. For this reason, the structural engineer should begin

to look at different materials as elements of an ‘‘integrated structural system.’’

From the above discussion, a new strategy to deal with advanced construction

composites is needed. Composites should not be penalizing by adopting the

wrong design of sections and structures. It is important for those engineers who

are willing to take advantages of these materials to learn the basic mechanics of

composites. The directionally dependent, the viscoelasticity, and environmental

properties need to be clearly understood. The composite industry must offer all

the support and encouragement to all academic and research studies. The great

attention shown lately by the different professional and federal organizations in

promoting and supporting research and demonstration projects is essential. For

example, the recent activities conducted by the Civil Engineering Research

Foundation (CERF), the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) SCAP

Committee, the International Conference of Building Ofﬁcials (ICBO), The

American Concrete Institute (ACI), the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the Federal

Highway Administration (FHWA) Transportation Equity Act (TEA-21) (Hooks,

2000), and the National Science Foundation (NSF) indicate the acceptability and

the high level of awareness by the engineering communities. The need of build-

ing design codes and material speciﬁcations is a must in order for this material

to enter and to survive the complexity of the construction industry. Much re-

search data has been conducted in this area that need to be collected in a database

system. The importance of this database is to evaluate these works by committee

experts in this area to select the useful information for the development of uniﬁed

design procedures. Experimental and analytical research work on the long-term

performance of PFRP is needed to increase the conﬁdence level of these mate-

rials. Composite education at the university level and the practical training pro-

grams for structural engineers are essential.

As we entered the twenty-ﬁrst century with these advanced materials, we need

advanced design tools to achieve the optimum design and the best performance

1420 COMPOSITES IN CONSTRUCTION

of these materials. For the other conventional construction materials, the use of

simpliﬁed design formulas, charts, and tables were acceptable. Fortunately, and

due to revolutionary advancement in computer and computational techniques

such as ﬁnite-element method (FEM), the use of computers will be the recom-

mended tool for composites. This is due to the fact that the optimum design and

performance prediction of campsites can only be achieved with more detailed

calculations. Simpliﬁed equations are still important for quick estimate and as a

tool for comparison. In short, advanced composites provide the structural engi-

neers, for the ﬁrst time, with the challenging opportunity to create innovative

structural systems.

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