Jackson S.L. Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical Thinking Approach
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THIRD EDITION
Research Methods
and Statistics
A Critical Thinking Approach
Sherri L. Jackson
Jacksonville University
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© 2009, 2006 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2008920909
ISBN-13: 978-0-495-51001-7
ISBN-10: 0-495-51001-7
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Research Methods and Statistics: A Critical
Thinking Approach, Third Edition
Sherri L. Jackson
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To Rich
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iv
Sherri L. Jackson is Professor of Psychology at Jacksonville
University, where she has taught since 1988. At JU, she
has won Excellence in Scholarship and University Service
Awards, the university-wide Professor of the Year Award
in 2004, the Woman of the Year Award in 2005, and the
Institutional Excellence Award in 2007. She received her
M.S. and Ph.D. in cognitive/experimental psychology
from the University of Florida. Her research interests
include human reasoning and the teaching of psychology.
She has published numerous articles in both areas. In 1997,
she received a research grant from the Office of Teaching
Resources in Psychology (APA Division 2) to develop A
Compendium of Introductory Psychology Textbooks 1997–2000.
She is also the author of Statistics: Plain and Simple (Belmont,
CA: Wadsworth, 2005) and Research Methods: A Modular
Approach (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2008).
About the Author
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v
1 Thinking Like a Scientist 1
2 Getting Started: Ideas, Resources, and Ethics 28
3 Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating Variables 56
4 Descriptive Methods 78
5 Data Organization and Descriptive Statistics 103
6 Correlational Methods and Statistics 140
7 Hypothesis Testing and Inferential Statistics 163
8 The Logic of Experimental Design 202
9 Inferential Statistics: Two-Group Designs 225
10 Experimental Designs with More Than Two Levels of an Independent Variable 256
11 Complex Experimental Designs 290
12 Quasi-Experimental and Single-Case Designs 316
13 APA Communication Guidelines 339
14 APA Sample Manuscript 357
Appendix A Statistical Tables 374
Appendix B Computational Formulas for ANOVAs 698
Appendix C Answers to Odd-Numbered Chapter Exercises and All Review Exercises 400
References 414
Glossary 416
Index 425
Brief Contents
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vi
Contents
1
Thinking Like a Scientist 1
Areas of Psychological Research 3
Psychobiology 5
Cognition 5
Human Development 5
Social Psychology 5
Psychotherapy 6
Sources of Knowledge 6
Superstition and Intuition 6
Authority 7
Tenacity 7
Rationalism 8
Empiricism 8
Science 8
The Scientific (Critical Thinking) Approach and Psychology 10
Systematic Empiricism 10
Publicly Verifiable Knowledge 11
Empirically Solvable Problems 11
Basic and Applied Research 13
Goals of Science 14
Description 14
Prediction 14
Explanation 14
An Introduction to Research Methods in Science 15
Descriptive Methods 15
Predictive (Relational) Methods 16
Explanatory Method 18
Doing Science 20
Proof and Disproof 21
The Research Process 22
Summary 23
KEY TERMS 23
CHAPTER EXERCISES 23
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Contents
■ ■
vii
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 24
WEB RESOURCES 25
Chapter 1 Study Guide 25
2
Getting Started: Ideas, Resources, and Ethics 28
Selecting a Problem 29
Reviewing the Literature 30
Library Research 31
Journals 31
Psychological Abstracts 33
PsycINFO and PsycLIT 33
Social Science Citation Index and Science Citation Index 34
Other Resources 35
Reading a Journal Article: What to Expect 36
Abstract 37
Introduction 37
Method 37
Results 37
Discussion 37
Ethical Standards in Research with Human Participants 38
Institutional Review Boards 44
Informed Consent 45
Risk 45
Deception 47
Debriefing 48
Ethical Standards in Research with Children 48
Ethical Standards in Research with Animals 48
Summary 52
KEY TERMS 53
CHAPTER EXERCISES 53
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 53
WEB RESOURCES 53
Chapter 2 Study Guide 54
3
Defining, Measuring, and Manipulating
Variables 56
Defining Variables 57
Properties of Measurement 58
Scales of Measurement 59
Nominal Scale 59
Ordinal Scale 60
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viii
■ ■
CONTENTS
Interval Scale 60
Ratio Scale 60
Discrete and Continuous Variables 62
Types of Measures 62
Self-Report Measures 62
Tests 63
Behavioral Measures 63
Physical Measures 64
Reliability 65
Error in Measurement 65
How to Measure Reliability: Correlation Coefficients 66
Types of Reliability 68
Validity 70
Content Validity 70
Criterion Validity 71
Construct Validity 71
The Relationship Between Reliability and Validity 71
Summary 73
KEY TERMS 73
CHAPTER EXERCISES 73
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 74
WEB RESOURCES 74
Chapter 3 Study Guide 75
4
Descriptive Methods 78
Observational Methods 79
Naturalistic Observation 80
Options When Using Observation 80
Laboratory Observation 82
Data Collection 83
Case Study Method 85
Archival Method 85
Qualitative Methods 86
Survey Methods 87
Survey Construction 87
Administering the Survey 91
Sampling Techniques 94
Summary 98
KEY TERMS 98
CHAPTER EXERCISES 99
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 99
WEB RESOURCES 100
LAB RESOURCES 100
Chapter 4 Study Guide 100
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Contents
■ ■
ix
5
Data Organization and Descriptive Statistics 103
Organizing Data 104
Frequency Distributions 104
Graphs 106
Descriptive Statistics 109
Measures of Central Tendency 110
Measures of Variation 114
Types of Distributions 121
z-Scores 123
z-Scores, the Standard Normal Distribution, Probability, and Percentile Ranks 126
Summary 133
KEY TERMS 134
CHAPTER EXERCISES 134
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 135
WEB RESOURCES 136
STATISTICAL SOFTWARE RESOURCES 136
Chapter 5 Study Guide 137
6
Correlational Methods and Statistics 140
Conducting Correlational Research 141
Magnitude, Scatterplots, and Types of Relationships 142
Magnitude 142
Scatterplots 143
Positive Relationships 144
Negative Relationships 145
No Relationship 145
Curvilinear Relationships 145
Misinterpreting Correlations 146
The Assumptions of Causality and Directionality 146
The Third-Variable Problem 148
Restrictive Range 148
Curvilinear Relationships 149
Prediction and Correlation 150
Statistical Analysis: Correlation Coefficients 151
Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient: What It Is and What
It Does 151
Alternative Correlation Coefficients 154
Advanced Correlational Techniques: Regression Analysis 156
Summary 158
KEY TERMS 158
CHAPTER EXERCISES 159
CRITICAL THINKING CHECK ANSWERS 159
WEB RESOURCES 160
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