Carafano James Jay. Waltzing into the Cold War: The Struggle for Occupied Austria
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sion of the 216th meeting of the National Security Council, Wednesday, Oct. 6, 1954, Oct. 7,
1954, Declassified Documents Reference System.
68. USCICEUR to JCS, 131426Z Nov., 1953, box 10, JCS Geographic Files 1951–53, RG
218, NARA; Memorandum for Freund, Department of State, Subject: First Report of Working
Group, NSC-164/1, Jan. 12, 1954, White House Office, SHAPE Correspondence 1951–53,
Central Files, DDE; FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 7:1923–26, 1949–51, 1976–80.
Chapter 8. Secrets
1. Hays to Wedemeyer, Sept. 17, 1948, box 98, Wedemeyer Papers.
2. Military Division to Deputy Commissioner, Subject: Ex CONSTABLE, Exercise Con-
stable, FO1020/3458, PRO.
3. Halvor Ekern, “The Allied Commission for Austria,” in American Experiences in Mili-
tary Government, ed. Carl Friedrich, 59; Rauchensteiner, Sonderfall, 231.
4. Hqs., USFA, “Implementation of Strategic Control Plan,” Dec. 1, 1948; and memoran-
dum, Subject: Austrian Standing Rationing Plans, Dec. 9, 1950, Arthur Compton Files, box 12,
Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941–54, Austria, RG 59, NARA; ? to Ma-
gruder, Sept. 20, 1950, box 9, Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1945–50,
RG 59, NARA.
5. Memorandum, Subject: Precautions Against the Isolation of Vienna, July 17, 1948,
FO1020/3468, PRO; Erwin Schmidl, “The Airlift that Never Was: Allied Plans to Supply
Vienna by Air, 1948–50,” Army History, fall, 1997/winter, 1998, 18.
6. Erhardt to State Department, memorandum, Subject: Possible Partition of Austria and
blockade of Vienna, Oct. 25, 1948, box 188, RG 263, NARA.
7. Memorandum of Conversation, Dec., 1950, Arthur Compton Files, box 12, Records of
the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941–54, Austria, RG 59, NARA.
8. FRUS, 1951, pt. 2, 4:1046; Christian Stifter, Die Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs: Die
geheime Remilitarisierung der westlichen Besatzungszonen, 1945–1955, 151–52.
9. Memorandum for Freund, Department of State, Subject: First Report of Working Group,
NSC-164/1, Jan. 12, 1954, White House Office, National Security Council Staff Papers
1948–61, OCB Central Files, DDE.
10. FRUS, 1951, pt. 2, 4:1047.
11. Ibid., 1952–1954, pt. 2, 4:1921.
12. Herz, Understanding Austria, 454.
13. Stifter, Die Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs, 132–33; Franz Hesztera, Von der “A-
Gendarmerie” zur B-Gendarmerie der Aufbau des Österreichischen Bundesheeres 1945 bis
Herbst 1952, 12–21; Wilhelm Svoboda, Franz Olah: Eine Spurensicherung; Rauchenteiner,
Sonderfall, 295, 397n. 28.
14. In 1952, for example, the army requested the transfer of $4,515,000 of MDAP funds to
the CIA. See “Index for Army Operations Decimal File,” box 8, RG 319, NARA. See also
Heimo Segel, “U.S. Waffenposts in Oberösterreich,” 71–75; Franz Cede, “Die rechtlichen As-
pekte der U.S. Waffendepots in Österreich,” 6–23; and Christian Sgur-Cabanac, “Erkenntnisse
aus der Verteilung der Depots und Ammerkungen zum militärischen Tiel der Bergung,” 53–66,
all in Sorry Guys, No Gold, ed. Manfried Rauchensteiner and Claudia Ham.
15. Yuri Modin, My Five Cambridge Friends, Burgess, Maclean, Philby, Blunt and Cairn-
cross, 67–168, 175.
16. Herz, Understanding Austria, 380–81, 495–96; FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 7:1858.
17. Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, 359–60.
18. Rauchensteiner, Sonderfall, 305.
19. Alexandre Y. Mansourov, “Stalin, Mao, Kim, and China’s Decision to Enter the Korean
War, September 16–October 15, 1950: New Evidence from the Russian Archives,” Cold War
International History Project Bulletin, nos. 6 and 7 (winter, 1995/96), 94–118; Kathryn
Weathersby, “Korea 1949–1950: To Attack or Not to Attack? Stalin, Kim Il Sung, and the
218 notes to pages 152–62
Prelude to War,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin, no. 5 (spring, 1995), 8–9;
idem., “New Findings on the Korean War,” Cold War International History Project Bulletin,
no. 3 (winter, 1993), 17.
20. Memorandum, Subject: Establishment of Checkmate Project, Mar. 31, 1951, Arthur
Compton Files, box 12, Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941–54, Austria,
RG 59, NARA.
21. Bolte to EUCOM, June 7, 1949, box 10, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218,
NARA. For a discussion of the Aufgebot see, Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs, 164–71.
22. Hays to JCS, 110Z Oct., 1952, box 10, JCS Geographic Files 1951–53, RG 218, NARA;
memorandum by the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, Subject: Austrian Peace Treaty Negotiations,
box 11, JCS Geographic Files, RG 218, NARA, 2. See also ibid., 1.
23. Civil Affairs Division Special Staff, DA, “Austria: Problems of U.S. Army in Occu-
pation,” NDUL, 12.
24. Memorandum of the Executive Secretary, National Security Council, Subject: Proposal
for a Volunteer Freedom Corps, Feb. 14, 1953, box 4, White House Office, Office of the Spe-
cial Assistant for National Security Affairs, NSC Series, Policy Papers Subseries, DDE, 6–7;
“Top Secret Supplement, Annual Historical Report, Headquarters, U.S. Army, Europe (U), 1
Jan. 1953–30 June 1954,” n.d., CMH, 75. For a comprehensive history of the proposal, see
James Jay Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless: America’s Plan for a Cold War Army,”
Journal of Cold War Studies 1 (spring, 1999): 61–85.
25. Galambos, Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, 12:340.
26. Memorandum, Subject: Discussion at the 132nd meeting of the National Security
Council on Wednesday, Feb. 18, 1953, Feb. 19, 1953, box 1, Dwight D. Eisenhower: Papers as
President, NSC series, DDE, 3–4; “Top Secret Supplement, Annual Historical Report, Head-
quarters, U.S. Army, Europe (U), 1 Jan. 1953–30 June 1954,” 74–75, CMH; “Narrative Sum-
mary of Major Events and Problems, OACofS, G3,” 20–2.3 AA, CMH, 2.
27. Carafano, “Mobilizing Europe’s Stateless,” 68. Lodge was not the only one to popular-
ize this proposal. See, e.g., Alvin O’Konski, “Foreign Legions for the USA,” Demobilization in-
cluding Rehabilitation and Redeployment Survey Prepared by the Analysis Branch, War De-
partment Bureau of Public Affairs, May 4, 1946, no. 56, MHI, 1.
28. Edgar P. Allen, Department of State, to Ambassador Donnelly, Feb. 1, 1952, Arthur
Compton Files, box 12, Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941–54, Austria,
RG 59, NARA; FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 7:1730–32.
29. H. W. Brands incorrectly concluded that the proposal for the corps originated with
C. D. Jackson. See H. W. Brands Jr., “A Cold War Foreign Legion? The Eisenhower Adminis-
tration and the Volunteer Freedom Corps,” Military Affairs 52 (Jan., 1988): 7. Lodge’s role as
the first advocate to suggest the program to the new president and as the drafter of the initial
proposal is confirmed in Cutler to Lodge, Jan. 26, 1953; Lodge to Cutler, Feb. 9, 1953; and
Lodge to Cutler, memorandum, Feb. 4, 1953, P-373, reel 3, Lodge-Eisenhower Correspon-
dence, Henry Cabot Lodge II Papers, MHS.
30. “USFA History, 5 July to 30 Sept 1945,” box 1, USFA Historical File, RG 260, NARA.
See also “The Displaced Persons Problem in Germany and Austria,” Intelligence Review no.
43, Dec. 5, 1946, MHI, 32–38.
31. “Apr.–June 1946 USFA Report,” box 1, USFA Historical File, RG 260, NARA, 157.
32. Pieter Lagrou, The Legacy of Nazi Occupation: Patriotic Memory and National Re-
covery in Western Europe, 1945–1965, 31–32. For a contemporary assessment of the threat
stateless communities represented to European stability, see the analysis by Lawrence Frenkel,
who worked as the UNRAA’s chief public health officer for Austria in, “Typed Manuscript,”
folder 1, Lawrence Frenkel Papers, HI.
33. Memorandum, Subject: Discussion at the 150th Meeting of the National Security Coun-
cil, Thursday, June 18, 1953, June 19, 1953, box 4, Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers, NSC series,
DDE.
34. Memorandum for Crittenberger, Subject: State Department Comments on the Volun-
notes to pages 162–68 219
teer Freedom Corps, Apr. 13, 1953, White House Office, National Security Council Staff
Papers, 1953–61, DDE, 6, 10.
35. Secret telephonogram by V. Semenov and V. Sokolovski in Berlin to V. M. Molotov,
June 18, 1953, morning, available at http://cwihp.si.edu/cwihplib.nsf.
36. Christian Ostermann, “New Documents on the East German Uprising of 1953, Intro-
duction and Commentary,” available at http://cwihp.si.edu/cwihplib.nsf; Christian Ostermann,
“Keeping the Pot Simmering, the United States and the East German Uprising of 1953,” Ger-
man Studies Review 19 (Mar., 1996): 61–89.
37. Memorandum for Cutler, Nov. 3, 1954, box 8, White House Office, National Security
Council Staff Papers, 1948–61, Special Staff File Series, DDE.
38. “Implementation of Paragraph 8 of NSC-143/2,” Aug. 20, 1954, White House Office,
National Security Council Staff Papers, 1948–61, DDE.
39. ACofS, G3, “Annual History Report, USAREUR, 1 Jan 1954–30 Jun 54,” CMH, 26–27;
idem., “Summary of Major Events and Problems, Fiscal Year 1954,” file 20–2.3 AA 1954,
CMH, 11–12.
40. “Part B—Detailed Development of Major Actions, Progress Report NSC-164/1,” OCB
Files, DDE.
Chapter 9. Arming Austria
1. Williamson to Perkins, Oct. 14, 1952, box 25, Miscellaneous Office Files of the Assistant
Secretary European Affairs, 1943–57, RG 59, NARA.
2. “A Short Report on the Austrian Battalion,” Jan. 24, 1945, Formation of the Gen-
darmerie, FO1020/2265, PRO; Allied Commission for Austria (British Element), Subject:
Soviet Suspicions on Demilitarization Issues, Feb. 25, 1946, Alleged Austrian Army,
FO1020/888, PRO; “Allied Commission for Austria, 13th Meeting, Jan., 1946,” Jan. 10,
1946, box 1, Record of the Allied Commission for Austria, HTPL; Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung
Österreichs, 43–44.
3. Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs, 33–34.
4. Periodical Intelligence Digest no. 22, Feb. 15, 1946, “Alleged Austrian Army,” app. A,
FO1020/888, PRO, 2.
5. Ibid.
6. Subject: Austrian Army, Sept. 15, 1945, Alleged Austrian Army, FO1020/888, PRO.
7. Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs, 45.
8. Keyes to JCS, Jan. 6, 1949, box 11, JCS Geographic files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA.
9. “Alliierte Komission für Österreich Alliiertes Sekretariat, an den Österreichen Bundes-
kanzler,” May 11, 1946, HM; “Einstellung der Tätigkeit, Aufteilung des Personals,” May 21,
1946, HM.
10. Keyes to JCS, Jan. 6, 1949.
11. See, e.g., Department of State, Austria, “The Issue of the State Police Developments in
the South Tirol,” Apr. 17, 1947, box 185, RG 263, NARA.
12. Allied Commission for Austria (British Element), Subject: Arms for Police and Gen-
darmerie, May 13, 1948; ibid., Subject: Transfer of British Military Commitments to the Gen-
darmerie, Feb. 11, 1948; ibid., Subject: Arms for the Austrian Police and Gendarmerie; and
ibid., Subject: Arms for Police and Gendarmerie, Feb. 10, 1948, FO1020/126, PRO; Intelli-
gence Organization, Allied Commission for Austria (BE), Subject: The Austrian Frontier ser-
vices, July 23, 1947, Formation of Gendarmerie, FO1020/2265, PRO.
13. Subject: Post-Occupation Forces in Austria, Jan., 1947, Post-Occupation Security
Forces, FO1020/112, PRO.
14. Marjoribanks to Cheetham, Mar. 9, 1948, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO.
15. Keyes to DA, Jan. 6, 1949, Box 11, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA;
Military Government Austria, “Report of the High Commissioner,” no. 17, Mar., 1947,
CMH, 201.
220 notes to pages 169–78
16. Douglas to Secretary of State, Apr. 17, 1948, box 11; and Keyes to JCS, May 7, 1948,
box 10, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA; Cheetham to Marjoribanks, Apr. 29,
1948, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO; Counselor, His Majesty’s Legation, to Deputy
Commissioner, Subject: Austrian Army, Exercise Constable, Apr. 28, 1948, FO1020/3458,
PRO.
17. Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung Österreichs, 78–90.
18. Hqs., USFA, Subject: Interview between General Balmer and General Deutsch, Apr. 21,
1948, Future Austrian Army, FO1020/3461, PRO; Minutes, June 29, 1948, Exercise Consta-
ble, FO1020/3458, PRO.
19. Subject: Organization of the Austrian Army, June 18, 1948, box 107, RG 263, NARA.
20. COMGENUSFA to DA, message P 3575, July 9, 1949, box 11, Joint Chiefs of Staff Ge-
ographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA; Cheetham to Marjoribanks, Aug. 18, 1948; and
Winterton to Kirtpatrick, Feb. 27, 1949, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO; Allied
Commission for Austria (British Element), Subject: Austrian Security Forces, May 3, 1949; and
Deutsch to Winterton, Nov. 24, 1948, Future Austrian Army, FO1020/3461, PRO; memoran-
dum for Deputy High Commissioner, Subject: Special Gendarmerie Regiment (Precis of cor-
respondence and Action to date), May 31, 1949, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO;
American Legation, Subject: Organization of the Austrian Army, June 18, 1948, box 187; and
ibid., Subject: The Security of Austria, July 9, 1948, box 188, RG 263, NARA.
21. FRUS, 1949, 3:415.
22. Keyes to JCS, Sept. 14, 1948; Keyes to DA, Sept. 25, 1948; and Keyes to JCS, Nov. 16,
1948, box 10, JCS Geographic Files, 1948–50, RG 218, NARA.
23. Keyes to DA, Aug. 5, 1948; Keyes to JCS, Sept. 13, 1948; and Keyes to JCS, Apr. 22,
1948, box 10, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA; Stifter, Wiederaufrüstung
Österreichs, 100.
24. Keyes to DA, July 9, 1949, box 11, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA.
25. “Quarterly Military Survey,” Feb. 20, 1949, box 10, ibid., 12. Figl believed that it would
take twelve years to build the army up to its authorized strength under the treaty. This was a
far more conservative estimate than that offered by Keyes, who believed that the fifty-three-
thousand-man ceiling could be reached within a year. The proposed locations for the Austrian
units were Tirol-Vorarlberg-Salzburg (headquarters, Innsbruck), Upper Austria (headquarters,
Linz), Carinthia (headquarters, Klagenfurt), Styria (headquarters, Graf); Lower Austria (head-
quarters, Saint Poelten) and Vienna/Burgenland (headquarters, Vienna).
26. Foreign Office, Vienna, to Foreign Office, Mar. 25, 1949; and Keyes to Galloway,
Mar. 10, 1949, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO; Outgoing Foreign Office Telegram,
Apr. 2, 1950; and “Program for Developing Austrian Army,” Future Austrian Army,
FO1020/3462, PRO; FRUS, 1951, pt. 2, 4:1047; Erhardt to State Department, Mar. 24, 1949;
Acheson to Erhardt, Mar. 18, 1949; and London to State Department, Aug. 5, 1949, Arthur
Compton Files, box 12, Records of the Office of Western European Affairs, 1941–54, Austria,
RG 59, NARA.
27. Keyes to DA, June 29, 1949, box 11, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA;
memorandum for Ohly, Subject: MAP Planning to Cope with the Austrian Problem, box 53,
RG 330, NARA; Joint Strategic Plans Committee, “Future Course of Military Action with Re-
spect to Austria—Military Aid,” Oct. 26, 1949; and London to Secretary of State, Aug. 5, 1949,
box 11, JCS Geographic Files 1948–50, RG 218, NARA; Winterton to Commander in Chief,
message, Subject: Special gendarmerie regiment, 271600 (June, 1947), Exercise Constable,
FO1020/3458, PRO.
28. Deputy Commissioner to Commander in Chief, June 27, 1949, Exercise Constable,
FO1020/3458, PRO.
29. Galloway to Mallet, June 1, 1949, Exercise Constable, FO1020/3458, PRO. See also
MIL/1066/G, Military Division, May 23, 1949, ibid.
30. Lyman L. Lemnitzer Oral History, MHI, 10–11.
31. Quoted in Phil Williams, The Senate and U.S. Troops in Europe, 28.
notes to pages 179–84 221
32. Arthur Vandenberg Jr., ed., The Private Papers of Senator Vandenberg, 508.
33. Lovett to ?, Dec. 7, 1948, JCS Geographic File 1948–50, RG 218, NARA.
34. Memorandum for Ohly; Joint Strategic Plans Committee, “Future Course of Military
Action”; London to Secretary of State, Aug. 5, 1949.
35. Joint Strategic Plans Committee, “Future Course of Military Action,” 2.
36. Hqs., EUCOM/USAREUR, “Command Report,” 1952, file 8–3.1 CH 5 C1, CMH, 309;
“Top Secret Supplement, Annual Historical Report,” 26–27.
37. Untitled document dated Sept. 18, 1952, HM. The organization, responsibilities, and
activities of the committees are described in Memorandum an den Vorsitzenden des Wiener
Komitees, May 9, 1952, HM.
38. “Alarmierung,” HM; “Gendarmeriealarmbataillon Steiermark—Kärten,” HM.
39. Brigitte Fiala, “Die Errichtung der B-Gendarmerie, Bibliothek des Staatsarchivs,”
ÖSA, 23.
40. “Bericht, über die IS-Manöver 1952 in Oberösterreich,” Nov., 1952, HM; “Bemer-
kungen zu den Organisationvorschlägen,” May 24, 1954, HM; “Die Frage der Verteidigung
Kärentes,” HM; “Gedächtnisschrift, 03.7.1953, Besprechung zwischen General Dr. Liebitzky
und Colonel Stevens,” HM.
41. Gruppe 04, Inneres/Justiz, BMI/5Sch, 1953, 228.001–228.250, ÖSA. The B-
Gendarmerie came under the Bundesministerium für Inneres, Generaldirektion für öffentliche
Sicherheit, Abteilung 5, Gendarmeriezentralkommando.
42. FRUS, 1951, pt. 2, 4:1026.
43. FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 4:1824–25.
44. Ibid., 4:1822. See also ibid., 4:1833, 1834, 1841–44.
45. Auslands-Presseschau Nr. 31, Wein am 30. Dezember 1953, HM.
46. FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 4:1858.
47. Memorandum of conversation, Subject: Internal Differences in the Socialist Party,
June 3, 1955; ibid., Apr. 8, 1955, participants: Interior Minister Oskar Helmer, Alexander C.
Johnpoll; ibid., Apr. 21, 1955, participants: Interior Minister Oskar Helmer, Alexander C.
Johnpoll; and ibid., Aug. 19, 1955, participants: Interior Minister Oskar Helmer, Alfred
Puhan, Embassy, all in Lot 58D, RG 59, NARA, 3.
48. Sven Allard, Russia and the Austrian State Treaty: A Case Study of Soviet Policy in Eu-
rope, 107.
49. Vojtech Mastney, “The Soviet Union and the Origins of the Warsaw Pact in 1955,” 6,
available at http://www.isn.ethz.ch/php/documents/3A/introduction/introduction.htm.
50. Memorandum of conversation, Subject: Internal Differences in the Socialist Party,
Apr. 19, 1955, participants: State Secretary of Interior Ferdinand Graf, Alexander C. Johnpoll,
Lot 58D, RG 59, NARA.
51. Memorandum of Conversation, Subject: Austrian Matters, Sept. 22, 1955, Lot 58D, RG
59, NARA; “Sowjettische Waffenlieferungen an Österreich, Bundeskanzleramt,” HM.
52. James R. Stephens Papers, pt. 3, MHI.
53. “Progress Report on NSC-164/1,” Dec., 1955, 1; and memorandum for the Board As-
sistants, Subject: Detailed Development of Major Actions Relating to Austria (NSC-164/1)
from Apr. 7, 1955 through Nov. 14, 1955, Nov. 10, 1955, box 15, Records Relating to State
Department Participation in OCB, RG 59, NARA, 24; FRUS, 1951, pt. 2, 4:1134.
54. “Outline Plan of Operations with Respect to Austria,” Oct. 17, 1956, box 15, Records
Relating to State Department Participation in OCB, RG 59, NARA.
55. “Progress Report on NSC-164/1,” Apr. 6, 1955, box 15, Records Relating to State De-
partment Participation in OCB, RG 59, NARA, 3. See also “U.S. Background Toward Austria,
Briefing Notes for the Planning Board Meeting, 12/1/60,” Nov. 30, 1960, Papers of Dwight D.
Eisenhower as President, DDE.
56. Manfried Rauchensteiner, “Das Amt für Landesverteidigung: Die Anfänge des Bundes-
heeres 1955/56,” Truppendienst 19 (Oct., 1980): 443–46.
57. Clausewitz, On War, 595.
222 notes to pages 184–92
Epilogue
1. For a detailed discussion of final negotiations and the motivations and activities of the
participants see, Stourzh, Um Einheit und Freiheit, 335–524. Günter Bischof, “The Making of
the Austrian Treaty and the Road to Geneva,” in Cold War Respite: The Geneva Summit of
1955, ed. Günter Bischof and Saki Dockrill, 117–60.
2. Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace, 125–27.
3. The account of the treaty signing is taken from the Llewelyn Thompson Oral History, SL.
4. The JCS’s response to the treaty is summarized in Kenneth Condit, History of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, 1955–1956, 107–11.
5. FRUS, 1952–1954, pt. 2, 7:1976; Special National Intelligence Estimate no. 11–8-56,
“Likelihood of Soviet Violation of Austrian Neutrality,” Nov. 6, 1956, file 193, NSA.
6. Odd Arne Westad, “The New International History of the Cold War: Three (Possible)
Paradigms,” Diplomatic History 24 (fall, 2000): 551–66.
notes to pages 193–97 223
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C. D. Jackson Papers
Eleanor Lansing Dulles Papers
J. Lawton Collins Papers
Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower as President
Ann Whitman Diary Series
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International Series
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Dulles-Herter Series
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