Caballero B. (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology and Nutrition. Ten-Volume Set

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and the Caribbean (26.98%), North Central America

(19.07%), South America (17.19%), and Africa

(11.00%). In 1998, India (17.81%), Brazil (13.06%),

China (10.15%), US (8.19%), Mexico (7.48%), and

Myanmar (6.40%) accounted for 63.09% of the

global dry bean production. Latin America and

Caribbean, Europe, and Asia, lead the world imports

of dry beans in terms of dollar value (Table 2). Brazil,

Mexico, Japan, Italy, France, and Venezuela, respect-

ively, accounted for 13.18, 11.17, 8.02, 5.06, 4.55,

and 4.08% of the total dollar value of world-wide

imports ($1 164 946 000) of dry beans. Asia and

North and Central America lead the world-wide

export of pulses and dry beans (Table 2). In 1998,

the leading exporting countries of dry beans were US,

Argentina, China, Myanmar, and Canada, respect-

ively, accounting for 24.37, 18.32, 15.95, 12.27,

and 7.36% of the total dollar value (78.27%) of

world-wide dry bean exports.

Morphology of the Pods/Seeds

0005 Regardless of the fat content, most legume seeds have

a similar structure. Mature legume seeds have three

major components: the seed coat, the cotyledons, and

the embryo axis. In most dry seeds, they account for

8–20, 80–90, and 1–2% of the seed weight, respect-

ively. The majority of the nutrients are present in

cotyledons. Typical seed structure and various ana-

tomical parts of legume seeds are shown in Figure 2.

The outermost layer of the seed is the seedcoat or

testa. The external seed structure includes the hilum,

micropyle, and raphe. The hilum is a scar-like struc-

ture (usually oval) near the middle edge where the

seed breaks away from the stalk. The micropyle is

the small opening in the seedcoat where, originally,

the pollen tube enters the valve. The raphe is the ridge

at the side of hilum opposite the micropyle and repre-

sents the base of the stalk that fuses with the seed coat

upon seed maturation. In most legumes, the endo-

sperm is short-lived and shrinks to a thin layer sur-

rounding the cotyledons (or embryo). On soaking the

seeds, the endosperm can be easily removed, along

with the seed coat. The remainder (embryo) of the

seed consists of shoot (which contains two cotyle-

dons), and a short axis above and below the cotyle-

dons and terminates in the shoot tip. The plumule or

embryonic stem is well developed in the resting seed

and lies between two cotyledons.

0006The outermost layer of seed coat is the cuticle,

which has papillae or papillae-like growth in some

legumes (e.g., green gram), but in most legumes, it is a

smooth structure. The thickness of the seed coat is

quite variable, depending upon the type of bean.

Generally, seeds containing thick seed coats tend to

have a high fat content. Both hilum and micropyle are

important in water imbibition by testa. Palisade cells

derived from the outer epidermis of the outer integu-

ment, next to the cuticle, are either loosely packed or

densely packed depending upon the seed maturity and

may affect seed hydration. Next to palisade cells are

the hourglass cells. The shape of the hourglass cells

can vary from bottle-shaped (guar) to dumbbell-

shaped (broad beans) to hourglass-shaped (soy-

beans). Only a few legume species (such as Dolichos,

Cajanus,andVigna) have more than one layer of

hourglass cells. The remainder of the testa contains

primarily mesophyl cells.

0007Legume cotyledons are primarily composed of par-

enchyma cells, which vary in size (70–100 mm) and

act as storage sites for most nutrients. Each cell of

the cotyledon is bound by the cell wall and the middle

lamella. Vascular bundles in cotyledons generally are

devoid of any filling material. Vascular bundles

Mimosoidae

Family

Caesalpiniodae Papillonoideae

Tribes

Sub-families

Vicieae Genisteae

Hedysareae

Trifoleae Phaseolaeae

Lentils

Peas

Chickpea

Kesari dhal

Broad bean

Horse bean

Lupine

Groundnut

Clover

Fenugreek

Soya bean

Lablab bean

Common bean

Cowpea

Pigeon pea

Jack bean

Sword bean

Leguminosae

fig0001 Figure 1 Botanical classification of food legumes.

BEANS 405

tbl0002 Table 2 Acreage, production, yield, and import/export data for pulses and dry beans

Pulses Dry beans

Area harvested

(10

ha)

Yield

(kgha

1

)

Production

(10

Import Export Area harvested

(10

ha)

Yield

(kgha

1

)

Production

(10

Import Export

(10

t) (10

$) (10

t) (10

$) (10

t) (10

$) (10

t) (10

World 67.651 826 55 933 24.26 694 16 848

Africa 15.898 519 8 259 130 107 69 299 13 018 4 231 2.97 622 1 852 160 148 83 770 80 022 38 628

Asia 35.258 744 26 244 477 634 201 938 132 532 62 215 13.064 629 8 221 527 742 259 426 1 034 829 416 628

Europe 4.549 2 034 9 256 54 994 14 790 52 096 10 567 0.488 124 607 508 948 355 337 106 562 89 832

Latin America

and Caribbean

7.350 699 5 143 104 779 51 198 881 684 6.807 667 4 545 590 809 408 994 370 350 274 625

North and

Central America

5.540 1 220 6 764 119 016 57 587 18 533 6 902 3.645 881 3 213 349 826 230 445 677 224 400 858

Oceania 2.056 1 088 2 237 6 141 2 356 8 400 2 291 0.56 100 56 10 086 7 059 32 690 14 877

South America 4.348 729 3 171 1 346 991 517 482 4.031 718 2 896 315 485 228 909 354 176 261 751

Data from FAO (2000).

are often used as key structures in the identification of

different plant types.

Chemical and Nutritional Composition

0008 The majority of nutrients in dry beans are primarily

located in the cotyledons and account for up to 90%

of the total nutritive value. Typically, dry beans pro-

vide 300–350 kcal per 100 g of dry seeds. The major-

ity of constituents of cotyledons are proteins and

carbohydrates and respectively account for 15–25%

and 50–75% of the total seed weight. The remain-

der consists of fat, minerals, fiber, and vitamins. With

the exception of oilseeds, dry beans generally con-

tain low amounts (1–3% of seed weight) of fat.

Although most minerals are present in cotyledons,

some (such as calcium and iron) may be present

in seed coat in significant proportion. The typical

nutrient composition of several Phaseolus beans is

shown in Table 3. Dry beans contain not only signifi-

cant amounts of nutrients but also several undesirable

components and attributes: inhibitors of enzymes

such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, subtilisin, amylases,

and elastase; lectins; phenolic compounds including

tannins; phytates; toxic amino acids mimosine and

djenkolic acid; cyanogenic glycosides, which produce

HCN; flatulence-causing oligosaccharides raffinose,

stachyose, and verbascose; lipoxygenases, which

catalyze the development of rancidity, and off-odors

often described as beany, grassy, painty, cardboard-

like, and chalky.

Proteins

0009Phaseolus beans are not only important for their

caloric contribution to human diet but are especially

valued for their protein content, since they are a

major protein contributor to the human diet on a

global basis. In certain parts of the world, they are

Raphe

Hilum

Micropyle

Seed coat (testa)

Cotyledon

Plumule

Hypocotyl

Radicle

Micropyle

Hilum

Outer

integument

Inner

integument

Epidermis

Storage

parenchyma

cells

Cotyledon

Seed coat

(a) (b) (c)

(d)

fig0002 Figure 2 Dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) seed: (a) external side view, (b) external face or edge view (viewing at hilum side), (c) cross-

section (one cotyledon removed), and (d) detailed cross-section across the seed coat and cotyledon.

BEANS 407

the most important source of dietary protein. Dry

bean proteins can be classified as storage and meta-

bolic proteins. The original protein classification pro-

posed by T. B. Osborne was based on the solubility of

proteins in a series of solvents. In this scheme, the

water and dilute salt soluble proteins were termed

as albumins and globulins, respectively. Dry beans

contain 40–60% globulins and 20–40% albumins,

based on Osborne’s protein classification. Globulins

are exclusively storage proteins, whereas the albumin

fraction contains both storage and metabolic pro-

teins. The protein content of dry beans is usually

calculated by multiplying the Kjeldahl nitrogen con-

tent by a factor of 6.25. Because dry beans contain

10–15% of total nitrogen as nonprotein nitrogen,

most dry bean protein values are typically overesti-

mated by 1–2%.

0010 The major storage proteins in dry beans have been

identified by several names, and therefore, their

nomenclature is somewhat confusing. Based on the

nomenclature using the ultracentrifugation sedi-

mentation coefficient (S), dry beans contain both 7S

(vicilin-like) and 11S (legumin-like) storage proteins.

Depending on the bean variety, the relative pro-

portion of these two types of proteins varies con-

siderably. The 11S type proteins typically are

nonglycosylated proteins with an estimated molecular

weight (MW) in the range of 300 000–400 000. They

are usually composed of six subunits (MW 60 000),

each consisting of one acidic (MW 40 000) and one

basic (MW 20 000) polypeptide linked by disulfide

bond(s). Usually, 11S proteins are present in minor

amounts in Phaseolus beans. The 7S globulin in Pha-

seolus beans has also been referred to as glycoprotein

II, globulin 1, euphaseolin, globulin, and phaseolin.

Depending on the type of bean, the 7S globulin type

and quantity vary considerably. In Phaseolus beans,

the 7S globulins are, however, the major storage pro-

teins and account for 40–60% of the total proteins.

The three major types of 7S proteins that have been

identified, biochemically purified, and characterized

are: (1) phaseolin, (2) lectin (also called glycoprotein

II, phytoagglutinins or phytohemagglutinins, and

protein II), and (3) arcelin in wild bean accessions

from Mexico (named after the town Arcelia in

Mexico, where some of the accessions were col-

lected). All the 7S globulins are glycosylated and con-

tain d-mannose and d-glucosamine as the major

sugar constituents.

0011Phaseolin Phaseolin is the major globulin in domes-

ticated Phaseolus beans. It is a trimeric, vicilin-like 7S

globulin known to exhibit polymorphism. The poly-

peptide polymorphism is believed to be due not only

to the differential glycosylation but also to phaseolin

polypeptides being encoded by a small multigene

tbl0003 Table 3 Proximate composition of Phaseolus beans

Bean Moisture (%) Protein (%) Carbohydrates (%) Fat (%) Ash (%) Crude fiber (%)

Adzuki 11.0 20.2 49.8 1.9 4.39 4.9

Black beauty 10.41 22.87 70.79 4.48 1.86

Black gram 10.2–10.9 19.7–24.0 56.6–63.4 1.3–1.6 3.2–3.4 4.4–6.4

California small white 9.65 25.90 58.00 0.25

Cranberry 12.71 23.43 71.26 1.09 4.22

Great Northern 8.5–13.3 21.0–24.37 61.2–71.07 1.0–3.48 3.5–4.86 6.7

Lima

Baby 13.30–20.40 20.40 62.10 0.80 3.40 6.0

Large 8.90 22.30 63.80 0.80 4.20 7.4

Mung

Green 17.92 27.12 62.85 1.53 4.01 4.5

Black 13.64 25.68 64.20 0.45 4.32 5.3

Navy 9.4–18.2 23.13–24.65 61.2–66.19 1.5–4.3 2.90–4.27 3.4–6.6

Pinto 9.05–14.70 18.8–24.97 61.8–69.47 1.2–3.6 3.07–4.10 3.9–6.3

Red kidney

Light 10.52 20.89 73.20 1.52 4.39

Dark 13.22 20.32 73.68 1.58 4.42

Rice bean 18.0–25.0 60.0–77.0 1.0–1.6 3.8–4.3 3.3–4.8

Roshina G2 9.89–11.11 25.77–26.30 63.33–64.02 1.85–2.00 3.19–3.79 4.6–5.1

Roshina pink 4.90 19.40 68.80 3.50 3.40 4.6

Sanilac 11.61 18.98 75.09 1.65 4.28

Tepary 21.0–25.0 70.0–73.0 0.8–0.9 4.1–4.8

Small red 13.12 22.45 71.97 1.43 4.15

Small white 13.03 19.73 74.34 1.99 3.94

Viva pink 12.69 21.30 73.23 1.06 4.41

Data compiled from Sathe et al. (1984) and Salunkhe and Kadam (1989). Data expressed on a dry-weight basis.

408 BEANS

family. Phaseolin is soluble in 0.5 M NaCl at all pH

values. It undergoes reversible pH-dependent dissoci-

ation–association with sedimentation coefficients

of 3.0S (pH 12.0), 7.1S (pH 7.0), and 18.2S (pH

3.6) known as peptides (MW 44 000), protomers

(MW 163 000), and tetramers of protomers (MW

653 000). Phaseolin consists of a group of subunit

polypeptides with MWs 43 000–54 000 and isoelec-

tric points from pH 5.6 to 5.8, depending on the

phaseolin type. Among Phaseolus beans, three dis-

tinct types of phaseolins, named after the cultivars

tendergreen (T), Sanilac (S), and Contender (C),

have been identified. Screening of 107 cultivars has

revealed that S-, T-, and C-type phaseolins accounted

for 69, 25, and 6%, respectively, of the total cultivars.

These types can be easily distinguished by one-

dimensional or two-dimensional gel electrophoresis

using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) polyacrylamide

gel electrophoresis (PAGE) for one-dimensional or

isolectric focusing in the first dimension followed

by SDS–PAGE in the second dimension for two-

dimensional gel electrophoresis. The C-type phaseo-

lin is believed to have originated from the T and S

types. Regardless of the type of phaseolin, phaseolin

contains 3–5% carbohydrates, and its amino acid

composition is dominated by acidic amino acids

(30–40% of the total). Typically, the N-glycosylation

sites in phaseolin polypeptides occur at amino acid

residue numbers 252 and 341. Sulfur-containing

amino acids (notably methionine) are the limiting

amino acids in phaseolin as well as other major stor-

age proteins in Phaseolus beans. The secondary struc-

ture of phaseolin in 0.5 M NaCl typically has a low

a-helix content (10%) and b-turns (9.0%) and a

large amount of b-sheet (48.0%) and random coils

(33.0%). Native phaseolin is quite resistant to digest-

ive proteases such as pepsin, trypsin, and chymo-

trypsin, and is degraded to polypeptides with MWs

24 000–28 000. Heat-denatured phaseolin is easily

digested by these proteases, however. (See Protein:

Chemistry.)

0012 Lectin Bean lectins agglutinate erythrocytes owing

to their ability to bind with cell-surface glycoproteins

and glycolipids. Although the precise function of

lectins in beans is not known, they are thought to

offer protection to the plant. Since lectins are toxic,

they are of nutritional concern. Lectins occur in both

albumin and globulin fractions. Certain bean culti-

vars lack lectins. When present, lectins represent

6–12% of total protein. In addition to agglutinating

activity, many bean lectins have mitogenic activity.

Most lectins of Phaseolus beans have subunits of

MWs 29 000–36 500 with an isoelectric pH in the

range of 4.9–7.9 (most are in the 5–6 pH range).

The majority of native lectins have tetrameric nature

(MWs 100 000–150 000) although some (lima beans,

for example) have a dimeric nature. The majority of

Phaseolus lectins have 4–6% carbohydrate, low

sulfur-containing amino acids, and sugar specificity

towards d-acetylgalactosamine. Lectins are very

resistant to common digestive proteases and are

slowly hydrolyzed in vitro, even after extensive heat

denaturation. Proper moist heat denaturation can

completely inactivate the biological activity of

lectins and therefore can render them nontoxic. (See

Hemagglutinins (Haemagglutinins).)

0013Arcelin Arcelin was first discovered in wild acces-

sions of Mexican Phaseolus beans. It also occurs in

lines that contain phaseolin as well as lectin. Because

it is present in equal or greater levels than phaseolin in

certain lines, it is one of the major storage proteins in

Phaseolus beans. The MWs of arcelin subunit poly-

peptides range from 35 000 to 42 000, depending on

the variant, and are more basic than both lectin and

phaseolin. The native arcelin has a MW of 89 000 and

is therefore a dimeric protein. Arcelin has many simi-

larities with lectin (including agglutinating activity)

with respect to chemical composition.

0014Other proteins Phaseolus beans contain trypsin

inhibitors (many of them also inhibit chymotrypsin),

amylase inhibitors, lipoxygenases, and several other

minor protein components. Most of these proteins are

a part of albumins. Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibi-

tors in Phaseolus beans typically account for up to

10% of the total proteins and are generally rich in

sulfur amino acids. The MWs of these inhibitors

range from 2000–23 000. Most Phaseolus beans

lack Kunitz-type (inhibitors with 170–200 amino

acids with MW of approximately 20 000) trypsin in-

hibitors. Amylase inhibitors in dry beans have been

characterized from only a few cultivars and therefore

not yet extensively studied. The MW of kidney bean

amylase inhibitor (a glycoprotein) has been shown to

be 50 000. Appropriate moist heat treatment (such as

cooking or autoclaving) can inactivate both the

protease and amylase inhibitors.

Carbohydrates

0015Total carbohydrates in Phaseolus beans contribute

50–70% of the seed weight and include mono-, di-,

and oligosaccharides, starch, and other polysacchar-

ides. Starch is the most abundant nutrient in Phaseo-

lus beans, accounting for up to 70–80% of total

carbohydrates. Among the simple sugars, oligosac-

charides (raffinose, stachyose, verbascose, and aju-

gose) are the major constituents (up to 10% of seed

BEANS 409

weight) and are at least partially responsible for flatu-

lence. Crude fiber is primarily composed of cellulose,

hemicellulose, lignins (not a carbohydrate), and other

nonstarchy polysaccharides such as arabinogalactans,

arabinoxylans, glucomannans, galactomannans, and

pectins. The hypocholesteremic effect of dry beans is

partially attributed to the presence of nonstarchy

polysaccharides. Phaseolus bean starch granules are

quite variable in shape (round, oval, oblong, ellip-

tical, spherical, kidney shape, and irregular) and size

(5–60 mm) and typically contain 10–45% (of total

starch) amylose. The average degree of polymeriza-

tion for amyloses and chain lengths for amylopectins

of Phaseolus bean starches range from 1600 to 1900

and 22 to 26, respectively. Based on X-ray diffraction

spectra Phaseolus dry bean starches are mostly of the

C type [a mixture of A (typical of cereal starches) and

B (typical of root and tuber and high amylose cereal

starches) types]. These starches have restricted swell-

ing, a gelatinization temperature range of 60–89



high solution viscosities, and good thermal stabilities.

Upon gelatinization, they produce opaque gels. Dry

bean starches (especially if cooked) are well digested

(their digestibility is comparable with those of many

cereal and tuber starches) by humans. Because dry

bean starches are digested slowly, however, they are

hypoglycemic and therefore useful in the diets of

diabetics. (See Carbohydrates: Classification and

Properties.)

Vitamins and Minerals

0016 Phaseolus beans are a good source of B-vitamins,

especially thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folacin.

Typically, the thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and fola-

cin contents (on a dry-weight basis) of Phaseolus

beans are, respectively, 0.5–1.14, 0.1–0.25, 0.4–

3.14, and 0.037–0.676 mg per 100 g. The vitamin E

content ranges from 0.72 to 1.97 mg per 100 g, and

the B

content ranges from 0.2 to 0.659 mg per 100 g.

Phaseolus beans are poor sources of vitamin A and C.

0017 Phaseolus beans are excellent sources of several

minerals, including Ca, Fe, Cu, Zn, P, K, and Mg.

Typically, raw beans contain 70–260, 0.5–1.40, 3.34–

13.5, 160–320, 1.0–2.1, 380–570, 1320–1780, 4.0–

21.0, and 1.9–6.5 (all expressed as milligrams per

100 g, dry-weight basis) of Ca, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, P,

K, Na, and Zn, respectively. The low sodium and high

potassium content of raw beans makes them a desir-

able constituent of human food (especially for people

with hypertension).

Antinutritional Factors

0018 In addition to protease inhibitors and amylase

inhibitors, Phaseolus beans contain several other

antinutritional and antiphysiologic factors such as

phytic acid, tannins, cyanogenic glycosides, saponins,

and allergens. Because these components are usually

present in small quantities (less than 5% of the total

seed weight), they do not pose a serious health hazard

under normal conditions (that is, when beans are a

part of total diet and are properly processed prior to

consumption). Of these antinutritional factors, phy-

tates and tannins are of particular concern, because

both are heat stable and cannot be easily removed

from beans during normal home processing. Phytate

is a general term used for mono to dodeca anions of

phytate along with esters lower than hexaphosphate.

Ca–Mg salts of phytic acid [myoinositol 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

6-hexakis (dihydrogen phosphate)] are referred to

as phytin. In most dry beans, phytate phosphorus

accounts for up to 80% of the total phosphorus.

The amount of phytate in Phaseolus beans ranges

from 0.6 to 2.1% (by weight) of the total seed weight.

Because phytates are chelating agents, they may

interfere in mineral utilization. Germination, fermen-

tation, and soaking followed by cooking (if both

soak- and cook-water are discarded) are effective

methods of removing phytates (50–80% reduction).

(See Plant Antinutritional Factors: Characteristics.)

0019Tannins (especially condensed tannins) are heat-

stable compounds and are present in Phaseolus seeds

(especially in colored varieties) up to 2% of total seed

weight. Because of their ionic character, they may

interact with other constituents (notably proteins)

and adversely affect the nutritional bioavailability of

that constituent. Tannins are thought to offer protec-

tion to the plant from insects and pests. (See Tannins

and Polyphenols.)

Lipids

0020Phaseolus beans contain 1–3% lipids (by weight),

depending on the species. Neutral lipids (30–50% of

total) and phospholipids (25–35% of total) are the

major constituents and glycolipids may account for

up to 10% of the total lipids. Regardless of the var-

iety, Phaseolus bean lipids primarily contain palmitic,

oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids. Polyunsaturated

fatty acids and saturated fatty acids typically account

for 55–87% and 12–28% of total lipids. (See Fats:

Classification.)

Beneficial Bioactive Compounds

0021Continuing research on raffinose oligosaccharides,

phytates, tannins, simple phenolic compounds,

sterols, protease inhibitors, and several other major

and minor constituents of dry beans suggests that

some of these compounds, under appropriate condi-

tions, may offer beneficial effects for human health.

410 BEANS

Long-term detailed and fundamental research is

needed to fully realize the potential health benefits

of dry bean consumption.

Grading, Handling, and Storage

0022 Dry beans are usually harvested at maturity. The

seeds are removed from the pods either manually or

mechanically and cleaned to remove dirt, stalks,

leaves, blemished, and wrinkled seeds, and packaged

prior to storage. The grading of seeds is usually based

on external characteristics such as color, gloss, seed

size, seed soundness, seed firmness, and presence

of contaminating substances. The seeds are stored

at farmer, trader, or government levels. Typically,

farmers hold up to 8% of harvested seeds until the

next season so that they can be used as planting seeds

if crop failures occur. In developed and developing

nations, a majority of the seeds are stored by traders

and/or governments to protect against subsequent

crop failures (or low yields), price fluctuations, and

fluctuations in supply (change in demand, shortages,

and famines). Losses in seeds occur both pre- and

postharvest. The normal preharvest losses are mainly

due to birds and mammals feeding on bean plant

seeds. Drought/floods, insects, rodents can also con-

tribute to preharvest losses. In developed nations,

preharvest losses are usually small (as low as 1% of

the crop). A majority of the losses occur during post-

harvest handling and storage, and can range from 8%

to as high as 50% of total crop. It is estimated that as

much as 48% of food produced in the world is lost

(due to pre- and postharvest losses). Factors that

influence postharvest losses of legumes include

moisture, temperature, respiration rate, insect

damage, microbial spoilage, and damage caused by

mites and rodents. Properly packaged dry beans

should be stored at low relative humidity and tem-

perature conditions. A high relative humidity and

temperature favor the ‘hard-to-cook’ beans. These

conditions also favor the growth of molds and insects.

Three major insect genera that cause much of the

damage to stored legumes are Bruchus, Acanthosce-

lides,andCallosobruchus. Dehusked, split stored

pulses are also damaged by Rhizopertha, Trogo-

derma, and Tribolium species. Usually, pests seem to

have a preference for the type of bean they infest,

although the basis for such a preference (or the lack

of it) has not been elucidated yet. The major micro-

bial problem during bean storage is contamination by

aflatoxin-producing molds (Aspergillus flavus and

Aspergillus parasiticus). Mites can consume food up

to their own weight (6–8 mg) and, because of their

large numbers, can cause serious losses. Rodents

cause twofold damage to stored legumes by not only

consuming but also contaminating plants (up to 20

times the amount they would eat). Because rodents

are carriers of many communicable diseases, they

pose serious damage to stored beans. The species

that most commonly cause damage include Rattus

rattus, R. norvegicus, Bandicota indica, B. bengalen-

sis,andMus musculus.

Processing and Food Uses

0023Phaseolus beans are processed and used in a variety of

ways. The processing of beans is mostly at the house-

hold level in developing and underdeveloped coun-

tries, whereas in most developed countries, the

majority of the processing is done at the industrial

level. Home processing methods include milling,

soaking, cooking, frying, germination, fermentation

(either alone or in combination with cereals),

roasting, puffing, parching, extrusion and frying,

and toasting. The method(s) used for home process-

ing depend on the regional preference for bean variety

and the desired end product. For example, mung

beans in sprouted form are popular on a global

scale, and therefore, germination is one of the pre-

ferred household processing methods used. Black

gram, however, is extensively used for preparation

of idli, a breakfast food popular in India and Sri

Lanka, after fermenting it with rice. Industrial pro-

cessing includes freezing for such beans as green

French beans, snap beans, etc., milling (production

of flours and high-protein flours), baking (baked

beans), cooking and frying (refried beans), and can-

ning (alone in salt water or tomato juice or in com-

bination with meats such as beef and pork). In

developing countries, dehusking and splitting to pro-

duce dhal are also performed on an industrial scale.

0024In developing and underdeveloped countries, Pha-

seolus beans are used in numerous ways, depending

on the type of bean and regional preference. They

may be eaten as raw, immature seeds; cooked as

green vegetables (such as French beans); consumed

as part of salads; used in making curry; used as a soup

ingredient; cooked, mashed, mixed with condiments

and spices and used as gruels and porridges; prepared

as pastes to be extruded to prepare fried snack prod-

ucts; sprouted; puffed or roasted and eaten as snack

foods; and fermented to prepare numerous fermented

products.

0025In developed countries, Phaseolus beans are

consumed as a salad and soup ingredient, sprouts,

canned, frozen, and refried beans. They are also

extensively used in the preparation of Mexican-style

preparations, such as burrito, chimichanga, taco,

bean dips, tamale, etc., and often canned with meats

such as beef and pork. In many South American

BEANS 411

countries, cooked black beans are a preferred part of

breakfast.

0026 Although there is a good potential for the prepar-

ation of protein concentrates and isolates and the

development of food starches, Phaseolus beans have

not been used on a large scale for such purposes. In

many countries, especially the developed countries,

Phaseolus beans have been extensively used as animal

feed. In developing and underdeveloped countries,

the green foliage, deseeded pods, and roots and

shoots of bean plants are used as natural fertilizers,

especially after composting. Because the legume roots

fix nitrogen, they help conserve soil quality. For this

reason, in many developing countries, they are

extensively used for soil-quality conservation.

Seealso: Carbohydrates:ClassificationandProperties;

Legumes:LegumesintheDiet;DietaryImportance; Fats:

Classification; Phytic Acid:Propertiesand

Determination;NutritionalImpact; Tannins and

Polyphenols; Vitamins:Overview

Further Reading

Derbyshire E, Wright DJ and Boulter D (1976) Legumin

and vicilin, storage proteins of legume seeds. Phyto-

chemistry 15: 3–24.

Deshpande SS (1992) Food legumes in human nutrition. A

personal perspective. CRC Critical Reviews in Food

Science and Nutrition 32: 333–363.

Deshpande SS and Srinivasan D (1990) Food legumes:

Chemistry and technology. Advances in Cereal Science

and Technology 10: 147–241.

Doughty J and Walker A (1982) Legumes in Human Nutri-

tion, Food and Nutrition Paper 20. Rome: Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FAO (2000) Statistical Databases, Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy http://

apps1.fao.org/serlet.

Kami JA, Velasquez VB, Debouck DG and Gepts P (1995)

Identification of presumed ancestral DNA sequences of

phaseolin in Phaseolus vulgaris. Proceedings of the Na-

tional Academy of Sciences of the USA 92: 1101–1104.

Muntz K (1998) Deposition of storage proteins. Plant

Molecular Biology 38: 77–99.

Osborn TC (1988) Genetic control of bean seed proteins.

CRC Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 7: 93–116.

Patwardhan VN (1962) Pulses and beans in human nutri-

tion. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 11: 12–30.

Reddy NR, Pierson MD and Salunkhe DK (1986) Legume-

based Fermented Foods. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Reddy NR, Pierson MD, Sathe SK and Salunkhe DK (1984)

Chemical, nutritional and physiological aspects of dry

bean carbohydrates – a review. Food Chemistry 13:

25–68.

Reddy NR, Pierson MD, Sathe SK and Salunkhe DK (1989)

Phytates in Cereals and Legumes. Boca Raton: CRC

Press.

Salunkhe DK and Kadam SS (1989) Handbook of World

Food Food Legumes: Nutritional Chemistry, Processing

Technology, and Utilization, vols. I–III. Boca Raton, FL:

CRC Press.

Sathe SK, Deshpande SS and Salunkhe DK (1984) Dry

beans of Phaseolus A review. Part 1. Chemical compos-

ition Proteins. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science

and Nutrition 20: 1–46.

Takahashi CK, Liang YW and Pueyo MT (2000) Phaseolin

RFLP in bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) cultivars. Food

Biochemistry 24: 129–145.

BEEF

R L Joseph, The National Food Centre, Dublin,

Ireland

This article is reproduced from Encyclopaedia of Food Science,

Introduction

0001 Beef is ‘the flesh of ox, bull or cow’ (Oxford English

Dictionary). Boeuf (Anglo-French) is derived from

the Latin bos, bovis (ox), and until the eighteenth

century beef meant both animal and meat. The ety-

mology suggests that the meat was for the Norman

ruling class, and was not commonly eaten by

Anglo-Saxon folk even in the late thirteenth century

as Middle English was forming.

0002Beef has enjoyed a special status since Bos spp.

were domesticated in Neolithic times in South-west

Asia. The bull was a totem for warrior nomads;

eating his flesh transferred his power. The docility

and strength of draft oxen, the versatile milk, the

valuable hides and attractive meat have made the

Bos genus economically vital to humans.

0003Today beef cattle are raised all over the world

(Table 1). The natural environment of Bos taurus is

temperate grasslands. B. indicus prefers savannah.

412 BEEF

Crossbreeds such as Santa Gertrudis grow well in hot

dry areas, such as the south-west USA.

0004 Different breeds have been developed over the cen-

turies to maximize returns under local conditions.

The compact, early-fattening Aberdeen Angus and

Hereford are productive in harsher nutritional and

climatic environments. The great draft cattle of

Europe, like Charolais and Chianina, put on muscle

quickly in larger quantity and are heavier at slaughter.

They are leaner, more productive, and are gradually

replacing the earlier-maturing breeds.

0005 Many European countries, and New Zealand,

produce beef from the dairy herd, whose cows are

selected mainly for milk production. Beef bulls on

surplus heifers produce beef calves. Pure dairy calves

may be raised for beef, in the UK, Ireland, and New

Zealand, or veal, in France and The Netherlands, or

pet food, in the USA.

0006Modern economic pressures intensify and concen-

trate animal production. Many once strong local rare

breeds are facing extinction; in the British Isles and

USA alone about 30 are listed. Their rich gene pool

must be maintained so a wide genetic base will be

available to accommodate future natural or market

constraints on production.

0007Comparison of systems converting feed into sale-

able meat is complex. Prices of land, stock, and feed

change yearly. Support schemes alter markets. Health

and diet are important to consumers, so a demand

for ‘natural’ feeding has reinforced economic pres-

sures towards increased use of grass and less use of

animal-derived feeds.

Typical Production Systems

Two-Year-Old Spring-Born Steer (Friesian/Friesian

Cross)

0008This tightly managed semiintensive system is suitable

for north-west Europe. In February, male calves are

bought and finished cattle are sold. In early April

yearlings start grazing 45% of the farm; 55% is

closed for silage. By mid-May the calves are grazing

ahead of the yearlings. In late May silage is cut, 45%

of the farm is closed for a second cut, taken in mid-

July, then slurry is spread. The calves are castrated in

late September. Finishing cattle are housed in mid-

October, weanlings in early November.

0009Fifty cattle may be produced off 22 ha. The main

inputs per animal sold per year are the 0.45 ha of

productive grassland, to provide grazing and 10 t of

silage; the fertilizers are 110 kg of nitrogen equiva-

lent, 41 kg of potassium, and 11 kg of phosphorus.

Each animal receives 25 kg of reconstituted milk

powder, roughage, and concentrates ad lib. In the

first winter the weanlings are fed silage and concen-

trates (150 kg). Yearlings receive 600 kg of concen-

trates during a 150-day finishing period.

0010Live-weight gains are from 0.6 to 0.9 kg day

1

Slaughter weight (Friesian) is about 600 kg, to give a

carcass of 320 kg, with about 220 kg of saleable lean

beef, some 55 kg of bone and 45 kg of fat trim. Charo-

lais  Friesian reach 680 kg, dressed 380 kg; giving

270 kg of lean meat, 60 kg of bone, and 50 kg of fat

trim.

Suckler Beef

0011This is extensive and more common on marginal

land. Calves suckle dams; a ‘cow unit’ consists of

cow, calf, and yearling. Cows are cross-bred Hereford

or Limousin on Friesian to give adequate milk with

tbl0001 Table 1 World production of beef and veal

Region Live

(10

)

Slaughtered

(10

)

Carcass

weight

(kg, mean)

Production

(kt)

1979^81

World 1 218 277 223 143 198 44 090

Africa 172 203 20 683 142 2932

North/Central

America

173 510 48 911 254 12 402

USA 112 152 37 292 271 10 092

South

America

239 246 34 023 201 6853

Asia 350 404 21 382 114 2435

China 52 567 2350 75 177

India 186 500 1710 80 137

Europe 133 377 48 037 220 10 551

France 23 825 7841 234 1832

Germany

20 672 7353 259 1890

UK 13 321 4097 260 1063

Oceania 34 790 12 715 173 2198

USSR 114 748 37 391 180 6720

1989

World 1 281 472 236 577 209 49 436

Africa 185 794 23 277 148 3455

North/Central

America

166 999 52 631 267 14 028

USA 99 180 36 376 293 10 655

South America 261 096 34 006 209 7100

Asia 391 556 29 599 119 3532

China 661 141 6658F 99 662F

India 195 500 2925 80 234F

Europe 125 569 43 388 242 10 500

France 21 780 6900F 249 1716F

Germany

20 369 7814 258 2005

UK 11 902 3374 284 958

Oceania 30 858 10 375 195 2021

Former USSR 119 600 43 300F 203 8800F

‘F’ is Food and Agriculture Organization estimate.

All data from FAO (1989) FAO Yearbook of Production, vol. 43. Rome: Food

and Agriculture Organization.

Average per annum.

Summed over FRG and GDR figures.

BEEF 413

low maintenance requirements. Mating is to a third

breed: Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, or Limousin for

the first calving and large breeds, Charolais or

Simmental for later pregnancies.

0012 Calving takes place in February to April. Calves

grow rapidly on the milk, reaching about 300 kg at

weaning in November. Each cow unit grazes 0.32 ha

in April–June, with 0.45 ha reserved for silage. Then,

until August, 0.48 ha is grazed; 0.29 ha is for silage.

Thereafter, 0.77 ha is grazed until housing in Novem-

ber. Silage is cut, in late May and late July, totaling

37 t ha

1

. About 175–225 kg ha

1

of nitrogenous fer-

tilizer is applied yearly.

0013 Housed yearlings have silage ad lib with 1 kg per

head per day of concentrates. After the second

summer on grass, the heifers are slaughtered, at 20

months, in November–December, finishing on silage

and 3 kg day

1

of concentrates. Slaughter at 500–

600 kg gives carcasses of 260–330 kg. Steers are fed

silage and 4 kg day

1

of concentrates to finish in early

spring at 24 months, at a live weight of 620–680 kg

and a carcass weight of 340–380 kg.

Bull Beef

0014 In Europe, except the British Isles, most male beef

cattle are bulls. From about 4 months they grow up

to 8% faster than steers, giving perhaps 40 kg more

carcass. Bulls kill out at about 57% (dressed weight

as percentage of carcass), 2% more than comparable

steers, with carcasses up to 15% heavier. About 74%

of a bull’s carcass is lean meat, compared to 66% for

steers. Bulls have a heavier forequarter, but a higher

yield of high-price cuts.

0015 Most bull beef is from the dairy herd, being Hol-

stein/Friesian dual-purpose and dairy beef crosses.

Calves bought at 1–3 weeks of age are reared to

100–150 kg on 25–50 kg of milk replacer, concen-

trates, and roughage. Slaughter at 12 months requires

a high-cereal or -fodder beet diet, giving a daily gain

of 1.1–1.4 kg and a carcass weight of 180–220 kg.

The meat is very pale. Slaughter at 18–21 months

requires maize silage with 15–20% concentrates or

beet pulp. Friesians reach 550 kg; dual-purpose and

crosses may attain 600 kg.

0016 In France, Spain, and Italy the suckler herd is an

important source of bull beef. Veau de Lyons is Li-

mousin, and at 12 months the slaughter weight is

450 kg; the meat is pale and not marbled. Slaughter

at 18–21 months requires a diet like the dairy bull, but

with more concentrates (25–30%). Carcass weights

are 300–430 kg, depending on the region and breed.

0017 Nearly all bulls are housed, usually loose in pens of

2–5m

per bull with up to 25 per pen. Farmers raising

bulls must insure safety, with secure housing and

fencing, warning notices, and careful work practice.

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

0018Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a pro-

gressive, fatal neurological disease. Since 1986 some

26 000 cases have been recorded in the UK, with

sporadic cases in other countries. BSE presents, in

adult dairy cows, as abnormalities of behavior and

gait. The causal agent was in meat and bone meal in

concentrates fed to calves. In 1988, feeding ruminant

protein to ruminants was banned, and notifica-

tion and compulsory slaughter were introduced. (See

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE).)

Meat Trade – Transport and Slaughter

0019The trade is closely controlled both nationally and

internationally, e.g., by the EC. Feeds and thera-

peutics must not endanger consumers’ health. Cattle

handling must be humane, so animals must be led,

not driven, and moved in production groups with

minimal goading and noise. Journeys should be

short and packing must allow fallen cattle to rise. A

12-m lorry will take 22 650-kg cattle.

0020Humane treatment improves meat quality and

reduces cross-contamination; nervous overfrequent

defecation increases Salmonella and other infections.

Lairage at the meat plant must have drinking water

and shelter. Groups should not be mixed as this causes

fighting. Stock must not be fed for 24 h before slaugh-

ter.

0021Western slaughter is preceded by stunning with a

blow or captive bolt. The unconscious animal is

hoisted by a hind leg, over a ‘bleeding trough’ and

stuck in the arteries of the throat. Delayed sticking

allows blood pressure to rise; arteries in muscles burst

so meat is blood-splashed and unsightly at sale. (See

Meat: Slaughter.)

0022Jewish or Muslim ritual slaughter, kosher or halal,

despatches the conscious animal with one cut across

the throat; slaughtermen must be licensed by the reli-

gious authorities. Bleeding-out takes about 10 min.

Blood supports microbial growth and its removal is

important for increasing meat shelf-life.

0023The carcass, suspended by both hind legs, is

dressed on the line. A moving chain carries it past

successive work stations. Hooves and head are re-

moved. The esophagus and rectum are tied and

freed before the ventral abdominal wall is opened.

The green offal – the alimentary tract – and the red

offal – the heart, lungs, and liver – are removed on to

conveyors. All parts are inspected by veterinarians.

The carcass is flayed and split with a power saw into

two sides. Trimming is to specifications agreed with

the farmers’ associations.

0024Sides are weighed ‘hot’ and graded for fatness and

conformation (shape) by public inspectors. Payment

414 BEEF