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polymerization and therefore levels of soluble poly-

phenols decline in the central, older heartwood.

Method of Manufacture

0010 Barrels are made in several stages: preparation of the

wood, making the staves, ‘raising’ the barrel, bending

staves by heating, beveling, grooving and placing

heads, hooping, and checking for defaults (Figure 3).

The Cooperage Industry

0011 The two main sources of oak cooperage have trad-

itionally been France and the USA, although recent

years have seen a growing supply of oak wood and

casks from eastern Europe.

0012 In France, the cooperage industry is one of the most

important purchasers of top-quality oak wood, with

250 000 m

of oak timber used in 1997, representing

400 000–450 000 barrels of an average capacity of

220 l. Over half of this production is destined for

export. The cognac and armagnac market accounts

for about 10% of barrel production, with the rest

destined for wine aging.

0013 In contrast, the much larger American cooperage

market is dominated by the spirits industry. The much

larger scale of production has also led to greater

automation in cooperage methods. Nevertheless,

smaller cooperages, often affiliated to French tonnel-

leries, are also found and cater in particular to wine

makers.

Selection and Cutting of Stave Wood

0014High-quality wood needed for barrel-making is cut

from trees with a girth of at least 35 cm and generally

100 years old or more, depending on growth rate.

Perfect straight-grained logs are used, with the timber

selected for its mechanical properties, its suitability

for shaping, and its porosity.

0015European oak is traditionally split along the grain

into bolts, before quarter-sawing staves (Figures 4

and 5). The finished staves are about 3 cm thick.

This method of cutting is considered to produce

staves possessing the best mechanical properties and

to improve the impermeability of barrels. However,

of logs is required to produce 1 m

of stave

wood.

0016American logs are rarely initially split into bolts,

but rather staves are directly sawn from cut logs.

While this method is both quicker and less wasteful

of wood, it is not considered suitable for European

wood. The greater abundance of tyloses observed in

most American oak may render it less permeable than

Oak heartwood

Structural components

Heartwood extractives

Cellulose

40%

Hemicelluloses

25%

Lignin

25%

Polyphenols

10%

Other extractives

(negligible)

Phenolic compounds: lignans,

coumarins, phenolic acids,

and aldehydes, simple phenols

Aliphatic compounds: acids,

alcohols, hydrocarbons

Terpenes

Lactones: cis and trans

β-methyl-γ-octalactone

Furans: furfural, 5-hydroxymethyl

furfural

Steroids

Norisoprenoids

Ellagitannins: eight

identified ellagitannins

of which vescalagin

and castalagin are

the most abundant

Condensed

tannins: relatively

low abundance

compared to the

ellagitannins

Phenolic acids,

aldehydes and

other simple

phenols

Heterocyclic

furan

compounds

Heterocyclic

furan

compounds

Hexose and

pentose

monosaccharides

D-glucose

forming...

degrades to...

Guaiacyl and

syringyl

compounds

fig0002 Figure 2 The major chemical constituents of oak heartwood. Percentages indicate the percentage of wood mass made up by the

constituent.

BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages 395

Barrel

manufacture

The logs are cut to the desired length

and then split into bolts

Splitting

The bolts are cut into stave wood

Drying

The wood is dried outdoors exposed to

the weather for 3 years.

It is sometimes kiln-dried after air drying...

...the staves are shaped

Planing and

hollowing

Shaping and

jointing

Raising the barrel and bending

This is carried out with a windlass or a bending machine...

...the wood is dampened outside

and heated inside

5−10 min: light heating

10−15 min: medium heating

15−20 min: heavy heating

The European technique

Bending with a wood-fired brazier

for about 20 min followed

by further heating:

The heads are made up of

7−9 boards assembled

with dowels. Strips of reed

make them liquid-tight

Making the heading pieces

The American technique

Steam bending followed by

charring with a gas burner:

15 s: light char

30 s: medium char

45 s: heavy char

The final hoops are

fitted and the barrel is

tested with hot water

fig0003 Figure 3 Barrel manufacture.

396 BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages

European oak wood and therefore this reduces the

importance of careful splitting and cutting of barrel

staves.

Drying

0017 Wood that is dried below what is termed the fiber

saturation point (about 30% water content for oak

wood at 20



C) undergoes shrinkage. The degree of

shrinkage varies along the different dimensions of the

wood, with radial and tangential shrinkage being

much greater than longitudinal shrinkage. Oak used

for barrel construction, therefore, is dried to 14–18%

water content to insure that any further moisture loss

will cause little dimensional change.

0018 In France, oak wood is traditionally dried (or

‘seasoned’) using drying stacks (Figure 6) in the

open air for about 3 years; it is considered that drying

requires 1 year for each centimeter of stave thickness.

During this period, changes may occur in the phys-

ical, mechanical, and biochemical properties of the

wood. These modifications are influenced by the ini-

tial properties of the wood (e.g., density) and the

stacking technique and climate. During air-drying, a

diverse fungal flora also develops on the surface of

staves, down to a depth of 3–4 mm.

0019 An alternative drying method is by forced-convec-

tion kiln-drying. As oak is one of the most difficult

types of wood to dry, the conditions of kiln-drying

are very gentle (40–65



C) to avoid any physical deg-

radations (deformations, splitting, wood collapse).

Despite the difficulties of kiln-drying oak, the greater

flexibility and speed are clearly an advantage com-

pared to the long process of air-drying. It is common

for wood to be initially air-dried for 12 months or so

and then kiln-dried according to need. An alternative

kiln-drying method, used primarily in the USA, con-

sists of rapidly kiln-drying the wood to a reduced

moisture content of between 25 and 40%. The drying

is then completed by traditional kiln or air-drying.

Barrel Assembly

0020An average of 28–32 staves and 12–16 head pieces are

used for the construction of a barrel. The first phase

of construction involves the preparation of barrel

staves. After being cut to the same length, they are

planed, hollowed, shaped, and jointed. Planing

renders the outer surface of each stave convex. The

inside of the stave is hollowed to give the barrel a

regular, concave shape. The staves are shaped to make

them narrower at the ends than in the middle. A

typical stave is 27 mm thick at the top and 24 mm

thick in the middle (the bilge). The next step of con-

struction is ‘raising’ the barrel, when the staves are

assembled in a ‘truss hoop’ before tightening.

Bending

0021This is a very important part of the barrel-making

process as it governs, to a great extent, the quality

and longevity of the barrel; poor heating can lead to

defective products. In Europe, bending is traditionally

Wood rays

Annual rings

Maximum of two rows of staves cut from

outer heartwood

Direction of penetration of

wood by barrel content

Sapwood

Heartwood

Central pith

fig0004 Figure 4 Quarter-sawn stave: orientation and location in the bole of the tree.

BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages 397

performed over a wood fire, whereas steam is most

frequently used in the USA.

0022 In the traditional wood fire technique, the cooper

burns oak chips and off-cuts in a brazier to make a

fire inside the assembled barrel (Figure 7 and 8). The

barrel may be turned to insure even heating of all the

staves. As the barrel begins to grow hot, the cooper

windlasses the base of the barrel while continuing to

feed the fire. He takes care to heat the central part of

the staves so that they bend without breaking and he

may cover the barrel shell to concentrate the heat

inside.

0023The wood is heated to temperatures of up to 200



during the operation. Such temperatures modify the

thermoplasticity of certain polymeric constituents of

wood (polyoses and lignin), allowing it to bend with-

out splitting or breaking. The inside and outside of

the barrel are dampened during bending to prevent

warping and difficulties when the heads are inserted.

0024The barrel is then turned over and new hoops

fitted. They are hammered on strongly while the

barrel is still hot to tighten the staves and make the

fig0006 Figure 6 (see color plate 3) Stave wood drying in the open air.

fig0007Figure 7 (see color plate 4) A barrel placed over a brazier for

bending.

fig0008Figure 8 (see color plate 5) Preparation for bending with a

brazier.

fig0005 Figure 5 Splitting into bolts.

398 BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages

joints perfectly liquid-tight. Once the barrel has been

formed, coopers may continue heating the barrels

(Figure 9).

Toasting and Charring of Barrels

0025 The degree of additional heating (or ‘toasting’) influ-

ences the organoleptic qualities of the wood. Both the

duration and intensity of heating may vary. Light and

medium heating differ mainly in the duration of

heating (5–10 min), with temperatures generally

varying from 150 to 200



C. Intense heating (heavy

toast) occurs at higher temperatures and is stopped

when exothermic reactions begin, that is to say at

about 280



C, as the barrel may catch fire at higher

temperatures. Traditionally, only the barrel staves are

heated. The heads, forming nearly 25% of the barrel

surface in contact with the liquid contents, do not

generally receive heat treatment.

0026 In the USA, most barrel staves are more intensely

treated to produce a layer of char on the inner surface

of the barrel. After being assembled by steaming,

barrels are then put over firing pots to dry the staves

and remove the surface moisture acquired in the

steam box. Next, they are sent to the charring fires

where the inside of each barrel is treated for 15–45 s

according to the depth of char desired. Barrel heads

are also charred on a heading char machine.

Final Assembly

0027 The heads are assembled with wooden dowels; a

length of reed is fitted in each joint to give a good

seal. They are cut to the required length and fitted

to each end of the barrel. The barrels are crozed – a

groove is cut in the ends of the staves to hold the head.

0028 The truss hoops used during assembly are removed

and replaced by the final hoops. The bung hole is

drilled and boiling water or steam is injected to

check for any leakage.

Organoleptic Properties of Oak Barrels

0029The cooperage industry used to manufacture barrels

in chestnut or other woods such as acacia for trans-

porting beverages or dry goods. Today, oak casks are

used exclusively for the aging of wines and spirits and

a few other food products (e.g., certain vinegars and

sauces). The barrel plays an important role in the final

flavor of the wines and spirits that it contains. (See

Wines: Types of Table Wine; Whisky, Whiskey and

Bourbon: Composition and Analysis of Whisky.)

The Effect on Flavor of Wood Constituents

0030The barrel directly influences flavor through the

following mechanisms:

0031direct extraction of soluble oak wood compounds

0032partial disintegration of structural macromolecules

and extraction of the resulting compounds

0033transformation of extracted compounds and inter-

actions with other wine or distillate compounds

Only a small fraction (4–5%) of lignin slowly de-

grades through ethanolysis and is extracted from the

wood. In contrast, 55% of phenolic compounds in the

wood are extracted. The most important polyphenol

compounds extracted are the ellagitannins, yet these

are not found in mature spirits and only very low

quantities are found in oak-aged wines. Recent re-

search has revealed that these molecules react with

ethanol and form hemiketal or ketal derivatives.

These derivatives have astringent properties and oak

polyphenols are also responsible for the color of oak-

aged spirits. Nevertheless, the exact role of polyphe-

nolic compounds in the aging of wines and spirits

remains poorly understood.

0034The principal volatile compound extracted from

oak wood is cis-andtrans-b-methyl-g-octalactone

(also known as oak or whisky lactone), and the qual-

ity of both wines and spirits has been found to be

correlated with levels of this compound. Other com-

pounds which are extracted from the wood and

which may affect the characteristics of wines and

spirits include volatile phenols, furans, and pyrazines.

The levels of these compounds, however, are gener-

ally below individual flavor-threshold values and

many are only formed in abundance as a result of

the heat treatment of barrels.

0035The oak barrel also indirectly influences the flavor

of aging beverages. The barrel defines the physical

conditions of storage which will influence, among

other factors, the evaporative losses of water, alcohol,

and other volatile compounds. The layer of char in

barrels used for aging spirits serves as an adsorbent

for volatile substances formed during distillation.

Storage in barrels also results in special redox

fig0009 Figure 9 (see color plate 6) Heating barrels.

BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages 399

conditions, with the wood allowing continuous, if

limited, interaction between the wine and the outside

atmosphere.

0036 Oak constituents of the wood may also indirectly

influence flavor by chemical or physical interactions

with wine and spirit constituents, influencing condi-

tions such as pH, oxygen availability, the solubility of

other volatile compounds, and the catalysis of various

reactions. During the maturation of spirits, the grad-

ual evolution of distillate compounds over the years is

as important for the flavor of the final product as any

direct effect of the wood.

The Influence of the Type of Wood and Barrel

0037 Oak wood is a heterogeneous structure, the proper-

ties of which are highly variable. Furthermore, the

wood used for barrels derives from different coun-

tries, species, and forests. In addition to this ‘natural’

variation, the method of construction also influences

the properties of barrels. Different methods of wood

drying and particularly barrel heating have important

effects on barrel properties. It is therefore not surpris-

ing that the flavor effect of barrels has been found to

be highly variable.

0038 Natural variation of wood properties Different

species of oak are characterized by different levels of

heartwood extracts. The dominant American species

(Q. alba) is characterized by low levels of oak tannins

but high amounts of certain volatile compounds,

notably b-methyl-g-octalactone. American oak wood

is also generally denser and has more tyloses. Of the

two European species, Q. petraea has been found to

possess levels of extracts closer to those of American

oak, namely high oak lactone and low tannin concen-

trations, than the other European species, Q. robur,

even when growing in the same forest (Table 1).

Recent studies suggest that the heartwood properties

of different American species may also vary.

0039Not all natural variation is explained by species

differences. There is also high heterogeneity in heart-

wood properties among individual trees of the same

species.

0040A recent study comparing barrels constructed from

the wood of individual trees by the same cooper

found that the resulting wines were very different.

The heartwood concentrations of cis-b-methyl-g-

octalactone in the oak wood was the factor that

most influenced wine flavor.

0041Barrel variation Differences in the method of con-

structing barrels may either augment or reduce nat-

ural differences in the properties of oak wood. The

most important factor influencing barrel properties

is the heating of the wood during construction. The

various heating and charring operations during

barrel construction modify the chemical composition

and macromolecular structure of the wood. These

changes depend on the intensity and duration of treat-

ment.

0042The most susceptible polymers to heating are the

oak polyphenols, followed by the hemicelluloses and

finally the lignin–cellulose matrix. Thermal degrad-

ation leads to the appearance of volatile compounds

which are present in only negligible quantities in

unheated wood. Thermo-sensitive hemicelluloses and

celluloses degrade to hexose and pentose monosac-

charides which are in turn susceptible to degrad-

ation, forming furan products such as furfural and

5-hydroxymethyl furfural (Figure 2). The thermal

degradation of lignins produces aromatic aldehydes

(cinnamic and syringyl aldehydes). The intensity of

heating influences the composition of degradation

products. At higher temperatures, aromatic aldehydes

give way to their respective acids and dimethoxy

tbl0001 Table 1 Concentrations of heartwood extractives measured in three oak species by studies of (I) barrel staves and (II) wood cores of

individual oak trees. Maximum, minimum, and mean values for the sum of eight identified oak ellagitannins (mg g

1

) and the sum of

cis- and trans-b-methyl-g-octalactone (mgg

1

)

b-Methyl-g-octalactone Ellagitannins

Study Oakspecies Forest origin Sample number Mean Min. Max. Mean Min. Max.

Quercus robur Limousin 6 1 1 1.3 27 13 42

Quercus petraea Tronais 6 29 1 78 20 6 30

Quercus alba Missouri and Virginia, USA 6 39 24 77 14 3 32

Quercus robur Cı

teaux 22 2 1 8 38 23 52

Quercus petraea Cı

teaux 28 5 1 28 29 8 40

Results from (i) Masson et al. (1995) Ellagitannin content of oak wood as a function of species and of sampling position. American Journal of Enology and

Viticulture 46: 262–268. (ii) Masson et al. (1995) Stereoisomers of b-methyl-g-octalactone. II Contents in the wood of French and American oaks. American

Journal of Enology and Viticulture 46: 424–428.

Results from Mosedale et al. (1998) Variability of wood extractives among Quercus robur and Quercus petraea trees from mixed stands and their relation

to wood anatomy and leaf morphology. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 28: 1–13.

400 BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages

(syringyl) thermolysis products become increasingly

prevalent compared to methoxy (guaiacyl) com-

pounds. (See Browning: Nonenzymatic; Phenolic

Compounds.)

0043 Structural modification of the wood due to the

thermolysis of parietal structures also leads to

increased accessibility of solvents to extractible

compounds.

0044 Wood-drying conditions also affect the chemical

composition of oak wood. Air-drying leads to a

greater loss of oak wood ellagitannins than does

kiln-drying. The effect of kiln-drying varies according

to the temperatures used, with the loss of many vola-

tile compounds (e.g., oak lactone, eugenol) increasing

at higher drying temperatures. At drying tempera-

tures of 65



C or more, a slight degradation in the

xylan and glucomannan hemicelluloses is observed.

Barrel Use

0045 Barrels are selected and used according to the proper-

ties of the spirit or wine being aged. The correct

selection and use of barrels is essential in achieving

the desired final product.

Barrel-aging Wines

0046 The costs of barrel-aging restrict their use to only the

more prestigious and expensive wines. Traditionally,

red wines are aged in barrels directly after vinifica-

tion, for a period of 6–18 months, before bottling.

White wines are sometimes barrel-fermented, the

wine being transferred to the barrel before alcoholic

fermentation is completed. Both red and white wine

may also undergo malolactic fermentation during

barrel-aging.

0047 Barrel selection and aging practices depend on the

type of wine; the cask should contribute subtle fine-

ness and aromatic complexity without overwhelming

the inherent character of the wine. In general, the

barrels used for wines are less intensely heated than

those for spirits. The type of bung, the frequency of

topping-up barrels after evaporation loss, the propor-

tion of new to old barrels, and the cellar conditions

will also all affect the aging process. The maintenance

of good barrel hygiene is more important in wine than

spirit aging due to the greater risk of bacterial con-

tamination. Barrels may be a refuge for microbial

contamination and the build-up of tartrate deposits

can prevent easy cleaning.

0048 Some wines, and especially sherry, are aged in oak

butts using the ‘solera’ system, which is in effect a

process of blending across vintages. After use, these

barrels are much sought-after for aging Scotch

whisky.

Barrel-aging Spirits

0049Both the type of cask and the duration of maturation

vary widely and are often defined by legislation

according to the product name. Thus, American

corn whisky must be matured in new, charred barrels,

while in Canada and Scotland, maturation must be

for a minimum of 3 years. Therefore, the bourbon

industry is the main user of new, charred American

barrels, which are subsequently reused for aging

Scotch whisky and rum. These spirits may remain in

barrels for over 10 years. Cognac and armagnac are

matured in European oak (Figure 10). Coarse-grain

(wide annual rings) wood is preferred, as it is con-

sidered more porous and releases more tannins than

fine-grain oak. Coarse-grain wood is predominantly

of the species Q. robur and fine-grain is mostly Q.

petraea. This difference of species is likely to explain

the difference in the levels of tannins extracted. The

spirits are first lodged in new barrels for several

months and then transferred to old barrels. Aging

periods may range from 3 years to several decades,

with a minimum of 2

years’ aging required for ar-

magnac and cognac under European Union law.

While it is in the wood, the spirit acquires color and

its bouquet becomes richer and more complex. (See

Tannins and Polyphenols.)

Exhaustion and Rejuvenation of Barrels

0050The amount of wood constituents extracted and the

effect on flavor decline with repeated (or extended)

barrel use. A number of methods are used to restore

some of the effects lost. The most common techniques

include the scraping out of the inner surface of barrels

to expose new, unextracted wood, and/or reheating

or recharring the inside of barrels. These techniques

rarely fully restore the barrel; recharring will not

restore products other than those deriving from the

heat degradation of wood macromolecules.

0051The change from using ex-sherry casks to ex-

bourbon casks for Scotch whisky maturation led some

producers to adopt various cask treatments such as

allowing them to absorb white wine or a very sweet,

dark sherry under pressure, before using them for

whisky. The beverage previously aged in the barrel

is considered to influence the flavor of the whisky.

Barrel Alternatives

0052The use of cheaper alternatives to barrel-aging have

become increasingly popular, particularly in the new-

world wine and brandy sectors. The adoption of such

alternatives is, however, often limited by legislation

preventing their use. This is notably the case for the

whisky and European wine and brandy sectors.

BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages 401

0053 The simplest method of ‘oak-aging’ is by the use of

oak chips. Many different types of chips are available

according to their size, wood origin, and treatment

(degree of toasting). Other barrel-alternatives include

various systems of removable staves which can be

simply replaced once exhausted. These systems are

used in conjunction with either inert tanks or with

old oak barrels. Such methods are widely used for

wine-aging outside Europe.

0054 Another barrel-alternative is oak wood extract,

whose use tends to be limited to brandy production.

Wood extracts (boise

s) allowed in the production of

armagnac and cognac must be obtained by extracting

oak chips using boiling water and are therefore

normally devoid of volatile components, consisting

mostly of oak polyphenols and their degradation

products. More sophisticated extracts are available

as either liquids or lyophilized powders, deriving

from an infusion or extraction of oak wood that

may have been previously subjected to physical or

chemical treatments to promote degradation.

Future Developments

0055 Most attention has recently focused on the variability

of oak barrels. There is greater interest in defining

the natural properties of stave wood influencing the

maturation of wines and spirits. The dominant factor

appears to be the biological species, but further studies

are needed to estimate the relative importance of nat-

ural variation between oak trees, forests, and species.

0056 Coopers also continue to optimize barrel produc-

tion and quality. In particular, toasting and charring

processes are more carefully supervised and

controlled.

0057One of the main unknowns is the future develop-

ment of barrel-alternatives. Current systems are likely

to be refined and perhaps new methods proposed that

more closely simulate barrel-aging. However, despite

the widespread use of barrel-alternatives for new-

world wines, the demand for barrels has showed no

sign of significantly decreasing. If oak chips and other

systems allow an economical alternative to oak

barrels, this has not prevented the continued use

of barrels for the most prestigious of oak-aged

wines.

See also: Browning: Nonenzymatic; Phenolic

Compounds; Tannins and Polyphenols; Whisky,

Whiskey, and Bourbon: Composition and Analysis of

Whisky; Wines: Types of Table Wine

Further Reading

Maga J (1989) The contribution of wood to the flavor

of alcoholic beverages. Food Reviews International 5:

39–99.

Mosedale JR (1995) Effects of oak wood on the maturation

of alcoholic beverages with particular reference to

whisky. Forestry 68: 3, 203–230.

Mosedale JR and Puech J-L (1998) Wood maturation of

distilled beverages. Trends in Food Science and Technol-

ogy 9: 3, 95–101.

Mosedale JR, Puech J-L and Feuillat F (1999) The influence

on wine of the oak species and natural variation of

heartwood components. American Journal of Enology

and Viticulture 50: 4.

fig0010 Figure 10 (see color plate 7) Aging spirits in oak barrels. Reproduced from Barrels Encyclopaedia of Food Science, Food Technology

and Nutrition, Macrae R, Robinson RK and Sadler MJ (eds), 1993, Academic Press.

402 BARRELS/Wines, Spirits, and Other Beverages

Nishimura K and Matsuyama R (1989) Maturation and

maturation chemistry. In: Piggott JR, Sharp R Duncan

REB (eds) The Science and Technology of Whiskies, pp.

253–263. Harlow: Longman Scientific and Technical.

Philp JM (1989) Cask quality and warehouse conditions.

In: Piggott JR, Sharp R and Duncan REB (eds) The

Science and Technology of Whiskies, pp. 264–294.

Harlow: Longman Scientific and Technical.

Puech J-L, Feuillat M, Boulet JC et al. (1998) Elevage des

vins. In: Flanzy C (ed.) Œnologie: Fondements Scientifi-

ques et Technologiques, pp. 1002–1052. Paris: Lavoisier.

Puech J-L, Leaute R, Mosedale JR and Morgues J (1998)

Barrique et vieillissement des eaux-de-vie. In: Flanzy C

(ed.) Œnologie: Fondements Scientifiques et Technolo-

giques, pp. 1109–1142. Paris: Lavoisier.

Puech J-L, Feuillat F and Mosedale JR (1999) The tannins

of oak heartwood: structure, properties and their influ-

ence on wine flavor. American Journal of Enology and

Viticulture 50: 4.

Sefton MA, Francis IL and Williams PJ (1989) Volatile

flavour components of oak wood. In: Williams PJ,

Davidson DM and Lee TH (eds), Proceedings of the

7th Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference,

pp. 107–111. Adelaide: Winetitles.

Singleton VL (1974) Some aspects of the wooden container

as a factor in wine maturation. In Webb AD (ed) Chem-

istry of Wine Making, pp. 254–277. Washington, DC:

American Chemistry Society.

Vivas N (1998) Manuel du Tonnellerie. Bourdeaux: Edi-

tions Fe

ret-Bordeaux.

BEANS

S K Sathe, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL,

USA

S S Deshpande, Sunnyvale, CA, USA

Background

0001 Throughout human history, more than 3000 species

of plants have been used as foods. On a global basis,

plants provide 65% of food protein and over 80% of

food energy, and account for 85% of gross tonnage.

Excluding the large number of fruit and vegetable

species, only about 50 crop species make a significant

contribution to human diet. Of these, cereals are the

largest group, followed by legumes, in terms of global

production. However, because legumes contain

almost two to three times more protein than cereals,

their dietary importance as protein source is well

appreciated. Of more than 1300 species of legumes,

only about 20 are most commonly consumed by

humans. Among these, the common dry bean, Pha-

seolus vulgaris, is consumed in the largest quantity on

a world-wide basis. Dry beans are low in fat (exclud-

ing oilseeds), low in sodium, and contain no choles-

terol. They are a rich source of proteins, complex

carbohydrates, fiber, vitamins, and certain minerals.

On a caloric basis, dry beans are more nutrient dense

than cereals. Dry beans are less expensive than animal

food products and, when stored properly, have a

considerably longer shelf-life than several animal,

fruit, and vegetable products. Since legumes have

the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and therefore

add nitrogen to the crop–soil ecosystem, they are

important in soil conservation and maintenance of

soil quality.

Global Distribution, Varieties, and

Commercial Importance

0002The word ‘legume’ is derived from the Latin word

‘legumen,’ which means seeds harvested in pods.

The term ‘pulse’ (from the Latin word ‘puls,’ mean-

ing pottage) is used for legume seeds that contain

small amounts of fat, whereas for those containing

large amounts of fat (such as soybeans and peanuts),

the term ‘leguminous oilseed’ is used. According to

the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the

word ‘legume’ is used for all leguminous plants. The

legumes most commonly used as human food are

listed in Table 1.

0003Although legumes have been cultivated for several

thousand years, the chronology and origins of domes-

tication of food legumes are almost impossible to

reconstruct. Some legumes (lentils for example) have

been dated back to 7000–6000 bc. Leguminosae (or

Fabaceae) is the third largest family of flowering

plants (after Compositae and Orchidaceae) in size

and economic importance, and is second only to the

grasses (Gramineae). Current estimates indicate that

Leguminosae has about 16 000–19 000 species in

about 750 genera. The subclassification is somewhat

controversial. The generally accepted subclassifica-

tion is shown in Figure 1. Almost all of the domesti-

cated legumes used as food are members of

Papilionoideae. All of the common beans belong to

the tribe Phaseolaeae.

0004In terms of global production, legumes (including

oilseeds) rank fifth in annual world grain production.

Dry beans account for approximately 30% of the

total world legume (pulses) production (Table 2).

On a world-wide basis, the common beans (Phaseo-

lus spp.) are the number one crop among dry beans

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(excluding oilseeds) in both production and consump-

tion and are therefore economically an important

crop. In 1997, the global dry bean supply in kilo-

grams per capita per year was 2.4. Asia produces

the largest quantity (48.80% of total world

production) of dry beans, followed by Latin America

tbl0001 Table 1 Grain legume species commonly used for food purposes

Botanicalname Commonname

Aracahis hypogaea Groundnut, peanut, monkey nut, goober pea, nguba

Cajunus cajan Pigeon pea, arhar, red gram, tur, toovar Angola pea, gandal, ambre vade, alverja

C. indicus Pigeon pea, congo pea, yellow dhal

Canavalia ensiformis Jack bean, horsebean, gotani bean, haba de burro, chickasaw, lima

C. gladiata Sword bean, maxima

Cicer arietinum Chick-pea, bengal gram, chana, deshi chana, kabuli, chiche

C. minotinum Chana, garbanzo

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Cluster bean, guar, aconite, cyamopse

Dolichos biflorus Horse gram

D. lablab Hyacinth bean, bonavist, field bean, caballeros, Indian butter bean

Egyptian kidney bean,

Ervum vulgaris Lentils, masur dhal

Faba vulgaris Windsor bean

Glycine max Soybean, soja

G. hispida

G. soja

Lablab niger Lablab bean

L. purpureus Kidney bean, hyacinth bean, Indian bean, lubia bean

Lathyrus sativus Grasspea, kesari dhal, vetch, chickling vetch, chicaro

Lens esculenta Lentils, masur dhal, red dhal, lentille, split pea, lentija

L. culinairs

Lupinus spp. Lupins, tarwi, tarin, pearl lupin, wolf bean, tremoco

Macrotyloma uniflorum Horse gram, Madras gram, Kallu, Kulthi bean

Mucuna pruriens Velvet bean, cowage, Mauritius bean, stizolobia

Phaseolus aconitifolius Moth bean

P. acutifolius Tepary bean, pavi, Yorimuni, dinawa

P. a n g u l a r i s Adzuki bean, feijao

P. a u r e u s Mung bean, green gram, golden gram, chiroko, chicka sano pea

P. calcaratus Rice bean, frijol arroz

P. l u n a t u s Lima bean, sieva bean, Madagascar bean, sugar bean, Burmabean, towe bean, pole bean, caraota,

panguita

P. m u n g o Mung bean, mungo bean, urd dhal, black gram, urad, woolly pyrol, kambulu

P. radiatus Mung bean, golden graham, green gram

P. vulgaris Dry bean, haricot, common bean, kidney bean, navy bean, pinto or snap bean, feijao, opoca, rajma,

French bean, chumbinho

Pisum sativum Dry pea, green pea, garden pea, field pea

P. a n g u l a r i s

P. arvense

Psophocarpus tetragonolobus Winged bean (humid tropics), goa bean, asparagus bean, Colombo, four-angled bean, princess bean

Sphenostylis stenocarpa Yam bean

Stizolobium spp. Velvet bean

Tetragonolobus purpureus Winged bean (Europe)

Trigonella foenumgraecum Methi, fenugreek

Tylosema esculentum Marama bean

Vicia faba Broad bean, horsebean, faba bean, field bean, Windsor bean

V. s a t i v a Vetch

Vigna aconitifolia Moth bean, matki, mouth bean, mat, math

V. a u r e u s Mung bean

V. r a d i a t a

V. m u n g o Black gram, urd, urad, kambulu, pyrol

V. sinensis Dry cowpea

V. u m b e ll a t a Rice bean, red bean, mambi bean

V. u n g u i c u l a t a Black-eyed cowpea, black-eye pea, cowpea, kaffir bean, Hindu pea, asparagus pea

Voandzeia subterranea Bambara groundnut, Madagascar groundnut, earthpea, Congo goober, kaffir pea, jugo bean, haricot

pistache

Compiled from Deshpande SS and Srinivasan D (1990) Food legumes: Chemistry and technology. Advances in Cereal Science and Technology 10: 147–241

and Doughty J and Walker A (1982) Legumes in Human Nutrition, Food and Nutrition Paper 20. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

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