Bergaya F. Handbook of Clay Science
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Kaolinization by weathering involves an aqueous environment with pH between 6
and 4, annual temperatures between 15 and 20 1C, and precipitation >1000 mm
(climate close to the subtropical and tropical forested zones). Geomorphological
conditions must be favourable for the permanent removal of K
+
,Na
+
,Ca
2+
,
Mg
2+
, and partly SiO
2
by leaching. Deferration can also occur at about pH 3 or at
higher pH if organic matter is present (Kuzvart, 1977).
The energetic conditions for kaolinization are satisfied either by long-term action
of exogenous agents or by a fast action of low-temperature acidic hydrothermal
fluids. The latter conditions are associated with post-magmatic processes, giving rise
to ore-deposits. The two models of hydrothermal kaolin dep osits are the Cornwall
type and the arc-island type (Harvey and Murray, 1997). In the latter case, heating
comes from cooling of a deep pluton, or from a magmatic source close to the surface
(kaolin deposits of Japan and of Mexico). When the hydrothermal activity originates
from convective circulation of underground water (heated by radioactive disinte-
gration in granite), the kaolin formed follows the Cornwall pattern (Dewu and
Durrance, 1993). Temperature is higher in the arc-island than in the Cornwall pat-
tern, and fluids can be more acidic.
14.2.2. Bentonite
Smectites form in very different environments (soils, weathering crusts, oceans, hy-
drothermal activity) independent of geological age. However, bentonite deposits are
mainly formed by alteration of volcanic rock or by direct precipitation (authigenesis)
in alkaline continental basins.
In the first case, smectite can be formed by supergene or hydrothermal activity,
most likely by a dissolution–precipitation mechanism with volcanic glass playing an
important role (Caballero et al., 1992). In general, temperature and time enhances
the formation of smectite, while Mg
2+
controls its growth. In the absence of Mg
2+
,
smectite can form from glass by solid-state reaction; dioctahedral smectites, firstly
Fe
3+
-rich (nontronite) and subsequently Al
3+
-rich (montmorillonite–beidellite)
minerals are formed. In the presence of Mg
2+
direct precipitation of saponite is more
probable (Fiore et al., 2000).
Wyoming, Montana, and Arizona (Cheto) bentonites are produced by transforma-
tion of volcanic material (ashes, tuffs) to smectites. In the case of Wyoming bentonite,
the alteration occurred in a Cretaceous marine environment practically contempora-
neously with the deposition of rhyolitic material. Cheto bentonite also formed by
transformation of a vitric ash of quartz–latitic composition deposited in ponds, in a
non-marine Pliocene series (Bidahochi formation) (Grim and Gu
¨
ven, 1978; Moll, 1979).
Other deposits of bentonites are hydrothermally formed (Milos, Greece; Ponza
and Sardinia, Italy; Oran, Algeria; Yamagata and Kitambuza, Japan). Bentonites
from Cabo de Gata, Spain were produced by devitrificat ion of Neogene andesites
and rhyodacites through the action of hydrothermal fluids (75–100 1C), followed by
the action of weathering water (E40 1C) (Leone et al., 1983; Caballero et al., 1985).
14.2. Origin of Clay Deposits of Economic Interest 1153
Grim and Gu
¨
ven (1978) also described bentonites formed from igneous rocks by
‘deuteric alteration’. This process involves a reaction between primary magmatic minerals
and water-saturated solutions that separate from the same magma body at a late stage of
cooling. This bentonisation is difficult to differentiate from the hydrothermal process.
The direct precipitation of smectites in essentially continental basins is not very
frequent. Saponite is formed, usually together with other Mg
2+
-rich clay minerals
(sepiolite, stevensite, palygorskite), as in the case of the Madrid basin bentonite
(Pozo and Casas, 1999).
14.2.3. Palygorskite and Sepiolite
The principal palygorskite deposits of Georgia and Florida, USA, formed in a Mi-
ocene peri-marine environment under shallow waters, mostly by smectite–palygors-
kite transformation, but detrital palygorskite from the continent is also present
(Weaver and Beck, 1977).
In other cases, palygorskite is formed by transformation of basalts in an alkaline
restricted marine environment (Dakar, Senegal) (Wirth, 1968) or by weathering
(Decan, India) (Siddiqui, 1984).
Sepiolite is mainly formed by direct precipitation in saline lacustrine environments
with other Mg
2+
-rich clay minerals. The sepiolite deposits of the Madrid basin, the most
economically important in the world, are of this type. Massive concentrations appear in
several facies of the continental basin. In the arkosic facies (fringing alluvial fan areas)
sepioliteoccursbothincalcretewiththealluvium and in marginal ponds at the leading
edges of alluvial fans. In the transition facies (mud flat-marginal lake complex) sepiolite
occurs together with smectites, stevensite, and kerolite (Jones and Gala
´
n, 1988).
Other deposits, including those of Amargosa (Nevada) (Hay et al., 1986),
Eskis
-
ehir (Ece and C- oban, 1994) and Denizly (Turkey) (Akbulut and Kadir, 2003),
El Bur (Somalia) (Singer et al., 1998), Amboseli (Tanzania-Ke nya) (Hay et al., 1995)
were also formed in lacustrine environments (playa-lake type).
14.2.4. Summary
Deposits of industrial clays may have complex origins. One deposit is not like an-
other of the same material, but genetic integrative models can produce useful pat-
terns for exploration purposes.
REFERENCES
Abad, I., Jimenez Milla
´
n, J., Molina, J.M., Nieto, F., Vera, J.A., 2003. Anomalous reverse
zoning of saponite and corrensite caused by contact metamorphism and hydrothermal
alteration of marly rocks associated with subvolcanic bodies. Clays and Clay Minerals 51,
543–554.
Chapter 14: Genesis of Clay Minerals1154
Akbulut, A., Kadir, S., 2003. The geology and origin of sepiolite, palygorskite and saponite in
the Neogene lacustrine sediments of the Serinhisar-Acipayam basin, Denizly, SW Turkey.
Clays and Clay Minerals 51, 279–292.
Altaner, S.P., Bethke, C.M., 1988. Interlayer order in illite/smectite. American Mineralogist
73, 766–774.
Aoudjit, H., Elsass, F., Righi, D., Robert, M., 1996. Mica weathering in acidic soils by
analytical electron microscopy. Clay Minerals 31, 319–332.
Aoudjit, H., Robert, M., Elsass, F., Curmi, P., 1995. Detailed study of smectite genesis in
granitic saprolites by analytical electron microscopy. Clay Minerals 30, 135–148.
Barshad, I., 1966. Effect of a variation in precipitation on the nature of clay mineral formation
in soils from acid and basic igneous rocks. In: Heller, L., Weiss, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of
the International Clay Conference, Jerusalem, vol. 1. Israel Program for Scientific Trans-
lation, pp. 167–173.
Beaufort, D., Cassagnabere, A., Petit, S., Son, B., Berger, G., Lacharpagne, J.C., Johan-
sen, H., 1998. Kaolinite-to-dickite reaction in sanstone reservoirs. Clay Minerals 33,
297–316.
Belzunce-Segarra, M.J., Wilson, M.J., Fraser, A.R., Lachowski, E., Duthie, D.M.L., 2002.
Clay mineralogy of Galician coastal and oceanic surface sediments: contributions from
terrigenous and authigenic sources. Clay Minerals 37, 23–37.
Bethke, C.M., Altaner, S.P., 1986. Layer-by-layer mechanism of smectite illitization and
application to a new rate law. Clays and Clay Minerals 34, 136–145.
Birsoy, R., 2002. Formation of sepiolite-palygorskite and related minerals from solution.
Clays and Clay Minerals 50, 736–745.
Blatt, H., Middeleton, G., Murray, R., 1980. Origin of Sedimentary Rocks, 2nd edition.
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
Bobos, I., Duplay, J., Rocha, F., Gomes, C., 2001. Kaolinite to halloysite-7 A
˚
transformation
in the kaolin deposit of Sa
˘
o Vicente de Pereira, Portugal. Clays and Clay Minerals 49,
596–607.
Borchardt, G., 1989. Smectites. In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (Eds.), Minerals in Soil Envi-
ronments, 2nd edition. Soil Science Society of America, pp, pp. 675–727.
Buurman, P., Meyer, E.L., van Wijk, J.H., 1988. Weathering of chlorite and vermiculite in
ultramafic rocks of Cabo Ortehal. northwest Spain. Clays and Clay Minerals 36,
263–269.
Caballero, E., Reyes, E., Delgado, A., Huertas, F., Linares, J., 1992. The formation of
bentonite: mass balance effects. Applied Clay Science 6, 265–276.
Caballero, E., Reyes, E., Huertas, F., Linares, J., 1985. Hydrothermal solutions related to
bentonite genesis, Almerı
´
a, SE Spain. First Italian-Spanish Congress, Seians di Vico
Equene, Italia. Mineralogica Petrographica Acta 29A, 187–196.
Carretero, M.I., Ruiz, F., Rodrı
´
guez Ramı
´
rez, A., Ca
´
ceres, L., Rodrı
´
guez Vidal, J., Gonza
´
lez
Regalado, M.L., 2002. The use of clay minerals and microfossils in paleoenvironmental
reconstructions: the Holocene littoral of Las Nuevas (Don
˜
ana National Park, SW Spain).
Clay Minerals 37, 93–103.
Chahi, A., Clauer, N., Toulkeridis, T., Bouabdelli, M., 1999. Rare-earth elements as tracers of
the genetic relationship between smectite and palygorskite in marine phosphorites. Clay
Minerals 34, 419–427.
Chamley, H., 1989. Clay Sedimentology. Springer, Berlin.
References 1155
Chamley, H., 1993. Le se
´
dimentation marine des mine
´
raux argileux. In: Paquet, H., Clauer, N.
(Eds.), Se
´
dimentologie et Geochimie de la Surface. Colloque a
`
la me
`
moire de George
Millot Les Colleques de l’Acade
´
mie des Sciences et du Cadas, Institute de France,
pp. 217–241.
Chem, P., 1969. Occurrence and genesis of kaolin minerals from Taiwan. Part I: Ka-
olinite, halloysite and allophane. Proceedings of the Geological Society of China 12,
30–48.
Chivas, A.R., Bird, M.I., 1995. Paleoclimate from Gondwanaland clays. In: Churchman, G.J.,
Fitzpatrick, R.W., Eggleton, R.A. (Eds.), Clays: Controlling the Environment. Proceedings
of the 10th International Clay Conference, Adelaide, Australia, 1993. CSIRO Publishing,
Melbourne, pp. 333–338.
Christidis, G.E., 1995. Mechanism of illitization of bentonites in the geothermal field of Milos
Island, Greece. Evidence based on mineralogy, chemistry, particle thickness and morpho-
logy. Clays and Clay Minerals 43, 569–585.
Clauer, N., S
´
rodon
´
, J., Francu, J., Sucha, V., 1997. K–Ar dating of illite fundamental particles
separated from illite-smectite. Clay Minerals 32, 181–196.
Dewu, B.B.M., Durrance, E.M., 1993. Mobility of U and granite kaolinization in southwest
England. In: Murray, H.H., Bundy, W.H., Harvey, C.C. (Eds.), Kaolin Genesis and Uti-
lization. Clay Minerals Society Special Publications 1, 75–97.
Dixon, J.B., 1989. Kaolin and serpentine group minerals. In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B. (Eds.),
Minerals in Soil Environments, 2nd edition. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI,
pp. 467–525.
Dong, H., Peacor, D.R., Freed, R.L., 1997. Phase relations among smectite, R1 illite-smectite,
and illite. American Mineralogist 82, 379–391.
Drits, V.A., Lindgreen, H., Sakhavov, B.A., Jakobsen, H.J., Salyn, A.L., Duinyak, L.G.,
2002. Tobelitization of smectite during oil generation in oil-source shales. Application to
North Sea illite-tobelite-smectite-vermiculite. Clays and Clay Minerals 50, 82–98.
Dudek, T., S
´
rodon
´
, J., 2003. Thickness distribution of illite crystals in shales. II Origin of the
distribution and the mechanism of smectite illitization in shales. Clays and Clay Minerals
51, 529–542.
Dudoignon, P., Proust, D., Gachon, A., 1997. Hydrothermal alteration associated with rift
zones at Fangataufa Atoll (French Polynesia). Bulletin of Vulcanology 58, 583–596.
Eberl, D.D., S
´
rodon
´
, J., 1988. Ostwald ripening and interparticle diffraction effects for illite
crystals. American Mineralogist 73, 1335–1345.
Eberl, D.D., Jones, B.F., Khoury, H.N., 1982. Mixed-layer kerolite/stevensite from the Am-
argosa Desert, Nevada. Clays and Clay Minerals 30, 321–326.
Ece, O.I., 1998. Diagenetic transformation of magnesite pebbles and cobbles to sepiolite
(Meerschaum) in the Miocene Eskis
-
ehir lacustrine basin, Turkey. Clays and Clay Minerals
46, 436–445.
Ece, O.I., C- oban, F., 1994. Geology, occurrences and genesis of Eskis
-
ehir sepiolites, Turkey.
Clays and Clay Minerals 42, 81–92.
Ehrenberg, S.N., Aagaard, P., Wilson, M.J., Fraser, A.R., Duthie, D.M.L., 1993. Depth
dependent transformation of kaolinite to dickite in sandstones of the Norwegian conti-
nental shelf. Clay Minerals 28, 325–352.
Essene, E.J., Peacor, D.R., 1995. Clay mineral thermometry. A critical perspective. Clays and
Clay Minerals 43, 540–553.
Chapter 14: Genesis of Clay Minerals1156
Fanning, D.S., Keramidas, V.Z., El-Desoky, M.A., 1989. Micas. In: Dixon, J.B., Weed, S.B.
(Eds.), Minerals in Soil Environments, 2nd edition. Soil Science Society of America, Mad-
ison, WI, pp. 551–634.
Fiore, S., Huertas, F.J., Huertas, F., Linares, J., 2000. Smectite formation in rhyolitic obsidian
as inferred by microscopic (SEM-TEM-AEM) investigation. Clay Minerals 36, 489–500.
Foley, N.K., 1999. Environmental characteristics of clays and clay mineral deposits. USGS
Information Handout, 4pp.
Fortey, N.J., 1989. Low grade metamorphism in the Lower Ordovician Skiddaw Group of the
Lake District, England. Proceedings of the Yorkshire Geological Society 47, 325–337.
Furlan, S., Clauer, N., Chaudhuri, S., Sommer, F., 1996. K transfer during burial diagenesis in
the Mahakam delta basin (Kalimantan, Indonesia). Clays and Clay Minerals 44, 157–169.
Gala
´
n, E., 1982. Geology of clays. In: van Olphen, H., Veniale, F. (Eds.), International Clay
Conference, 1981. Developments in Sedimentology 35. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 273–277.
Gala
´
n, E., 1986. Las arcillas como indicadores paleoambientales. Boletı
´
n de la Sociedad
Espan
˜
ola de Mineralogı
´
a 9, 11–22.
Gala
´
n, E., Aparicio, A., 1980. Las caracterı
´
sticas del metamorfismo de bajo y muy bajo grado
en el sector oriental del Sistema Central (Guadalajara). Estudios Geolo
´
gicos 36, 75–84.
Gala
´
n, E., Aparicio, P., Miras, A., Michailidis, K., Tsirambidis, A., 1996. Technical properties
of compounded kaolin sample from Griva (Macedonia, Greece). Applied Clay Science 10,
477–490.
Gala
´
n, E., Carretero, M.I., Ferna
´
ndez Caliani, J.C., 1999. Effects of acid mine drainage on
clay minerals suspended in the Tinto River (Rio Tinto, Spain). An experimental approach.
Clay Minerals 34, 99–108.
Gomes, C., Velho, J., Guimavaes, F., 1994. Kaolin deposit of Mevaiela (Angola) alteration
product of anorthosite: assessment of kaolin potentialities for application in paper. Applied
Clay Science 9, 97–106.
Grim, R.E., Gu
¨
ven, N., 1978. Bentonites. Geology, Mineralogy, Properties and Uses. Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Gutierrez-Mas, J.M., Lo
´
pez Galindo, A., Lo
´
pez Aguayo, F., 1997. Clay minerals of Mi-
ocene–Pliocene materials at the Vera basin, Almerı
´
a, Spain. Geological interpretation.
Mineralogica et Petrographica Acta 29A, 259–266.
Harvey, C.C., Murray, H.H., 1997. Industrial clays in the 21st century: a perspective of
exploration, technology and utilization. Applied Clay Science 11, 305–310.
Hay, R.E., Hughes, R.E., Kyser, T.K., Glass, H.D., Lin, J., 1995. Magnesium-rich clay of the
meerschaum mines in the Amboseli Basin, Tanzania and Kenya. Clays and Clay Minerals
43, 455–466.
Hay, R.E., Pexton, R.E., Teague, T.T., Kyser, T.K., 1986. Spring-related carbonate rocks, Mg
clays, and associated minerals in Pliocene deposits of the Amargosa Desert, Nevada and
California. Geological Society of America Bulletin 97, 1488–1503.
Henley, R.W., 1985. The geothermal framework for epithermal systems. In: Berger, B.R.,
Bethle, P.M. (Eds.), Reviews on Economic Geology, vol. 2. Geology and Geochemistry of
Epithermal Systems. Society of Economic Geologists, Chelsea, MI, pp. 1–24.
Henley, R.W., Ellis, A.J., 1983. Geothermal systems ancient and modern: a geochemical
review. Earth Science Reviews 19, 1–50.
Herbillon, A.J., Frankort, R., Vielvoye, L., 1981. An occurrence of interstratified kaolinite-
smectite minerals in a red-black soil toposequence. Clay Minerals 16, 195–201.
References 1157
Hillier, S., 1995. Erosion, sedimentation and sedimentary origin of clays. In: Velde, B. (Ed.),
Origin and Mineralogy of Clays. Springer, Berlin, pp. 162–219.
Huang, W.L., Bishop, A.M., Brown, R.W., 1986. The effect of fluid/rock ratio on
feldspar dissolution and illite formation under reservoir conditions. Clay Minerals 21,
585–601.
Inoue, A., Kitagawa, R., 1994. Morphological characteristics of illitic clay minerals from a
hydrothermal system. American Mineralogist 79, 700–711.
Inoue, A., Velde, B., Meunier, A., Touchard, G., 1988. Mechanism of illite formation
during smectite to illite conversion in a hydrothermal system. American Mineralogist 73,
1325–1334.
Jiang, W.T., Peacor, D.R., Merriman, R.J., Roberts, B., 1990. Transmission and analytical
electron microscopic study of mixed-layer illite-smectite formed as an apparent replace-
ment product of diagenetic illite. Clays and Clay Minerals 38, 449–468.
Jones, B.F., Gala
´
n, E., 1988. Sepiolite and palygorskite. In: Bailey, S.W. (Ed.), Hydrous
Phyllosilicates (Exclusive of Micas). Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 19. Mineralogical Society
of America, Washington, DC, pp. 631–674.
Jones, B.F., Weir, A.H., 1983. Clay minerals of lake Albert, an alkaline saline lake. Clays and
Clay Minerals 31, 161–172.
Kantor, W., Schwertmann, U., 1974. Mineralogy and genesis of clays in red black soil topo-
sequences on basic rocks in Kenya. Journal of Soil Science 25, 67–68.
Kastner, M., 1981. Authigenic silicates in deep-sea sediments: formation and diagenesis. In:
Emiliani, E. (Ed.), The Sea. Wiley, New York, pp. 915–988.
Keller, W.D., 1970. Environmental aspects of clay minerals. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology
40, 798–813.
Konta, J., 1992. Phyllosilicates in rivers: result of weathering, erosion, transportation and
deposition. In: Gala
´
n, E., Ortega-Huertas, M. (Eds.), XI Reunio
´
n Cientı
´
fica Sociedad
Espan
˜
ola de Arcillas. University of Granada, Spain, pp. 23–44.
Kuzvart, M., 1977. Aspects of kaolin genesis. In: Gala
´
n, E. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 8th
International Kaolin Symposium and Meeting on Alunite, Madrid-Rome. Ministerio de
Industria y Energı
´
a, Madrid, K 12.
La Iglesia, A., Gala
´
n, E., 1975. Halloysite-kaolinite transformation at room temperature.
Clays and Clay Minerals 23, 109–113.
La Iglesia, A., Van Oosterwyck-Gastuche, M.C., 1978. Kaolinite synthesis I. Crystallization
conditions at low temperatures and calculation of thermodynamic equilibria. Applications
to laboratory and field observations. Clays and Clay Minerals 26, 397–408.
Lanson, B., Beaufort, D., Berger, G., Bauer, A., Cassagnabe
`
re, A., Meunier, A., 2002. Au-
thigenic kaolin and illitic minerals during burial diagenesis of sandstones: a review. Clay
Minerals 37, 1–22.
Leone, G., Reyes, E., Cortecci, G., Pochini, A., Linares, J., 1983. Genesis of bentonites from
Cabo de Gata, Almerı
´
a, Spain: a stable isotope study. Clay Minerals 18, 227–238.
Linares, J., Huertas, F., 1971. Kaolinite synthesis at room temperature. Science 171,
896–897.
Lindgreen, H., Drits, V.A., Sakharov, B.A., Jakobsen, H.J., Salyn, A.L., Dainyak, L.G.,
Kroyer, H., 2002. The structure and diagenetic transformation of illite-smectite and chlo-
rite-smectite from North Sea Cretaceous-Tertiary chalk. American Mineralogist 87,
429–450.
Chapter 14: Genesis of Clay Minerals1158
Lo
´
pez Aguayo, F., 1990. Aplicacio
´
n de la mineralogı
´
a de arcillas al ana
´
lisis de cuencas. In:
Gala
´
n, E., Ortega Huertas, M. (Eds.), IX y X Reuniones Cientı
´
ficas. Sociedad Espan
˜
ola de
Arcillas. Universidad de Granada, Spain, pp. 69–86.
Lo
´
pez Galindo, A., 1986. Las facies oscuras del Creta
´
cico medio en la zona de la Subbe
´
tica.
Mineralogı
´
a y Sedimentacio
´
n. Ph.D thesis. Servicio de Publicaciones Universidad de Gra-
nada, 227 pp.
Lo
´
pez Galindo, A., Ben Aboud, A., Fenoll Hach-Ali, P., Casas Ruiz, J., 1996. Mineralogical
and geochemical characterization of palygorskite from Gabasa (NE, Spain). Evidence of a
detrital precursor. Clay Minerals 31, 33–44.
McHardy, W.J., Wilson, M.J., Tait, J.M., 1982. Electron microscope and X-ray diffraction studies
of filamentous illitic clay from sandstones of the Magnus field. Clay Minerals 17, 23–39.
Mackenzie, R.C., Wilson, M.J., Mashhady, A.S., 1984. Origin of palygorskite in some soils of
the Arabian Peninsula. In: Singer, A., Gala
´
n, E. (Eds.), Palygorskite-Sepiolite. Occurrences,
Genesis and Uses. Developments in Sedimentology 37. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 177–186.
Makumbi, M.N., Herbillon, A.J., 1972. Vermiculitisation e
´
xperimentale d’une chlorite. Bul-
letin du Groupe Franc-ais des Argiles 24, 153–164.
Masuda, H., Peacor, D.R., Dong, H., 2001. Transmission electron microscopy study of con-
version of smectite to illite in mudstones of the Nankai Trough: contrast with coeval
bentonites. Clays and Clay Minerals 49, 109–118.
Merriman, R.J., 2002. Contrasting clay mineral assemblages in British Lower Paleozoic slate
belts: the influence of geotectonic setting. Clay Minerals 37, 207–219.
Merriman, R.J., 2003. Clay minerals and sedimentary basin history. Euroclay’03, Modena.
Book of Abstracts, pp. 188–190.
Merriman, R.J., Peacor, D.R., 1999. Very low-grade metapelites; mineralogy, microtextures
and measuring reaction progress. In: Frey, M., Robinson, D. (Eds.), Low-Grade Meta-
morphism. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 10–60.
Merriman, R.J., Roberts, B., 1985. A survey of white mica crystallinity and polytypes in pelitic
rocks of Snowdonia and Llyn, N. Wales. Mineralogical Magazine 49, 305–319.
Merriman, R.J., Roberts, B., 2001. Low-grade metamorphism in the Scottish Southern Up-
lands terrane: deciphering the patterns of accretionary burial, shearing and crystic aureoles.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Earth Sciences 91, 521–537.
Millot, G., 1964. Geologie des Argiles. Masson et cie, Paris.
Millot, G., 1979. La arcilla. Investigacio
´
n y Ciencia 33, 47–57.
Moll, W.F., 1979. Origin of CMS samples. In: van Olphen, H., Fripiat, J.J. (Eds.), Data
Handbook for Clay Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals. Pergamon Press, Oxford,
pp. 69–125.
Morse, J.W., Casey, W.H., 1988. Ostwald processes and mineral paragenesis in sediments.
American Journal of Science 288, 537–560.
Murakami, T., Isobe, H., Sato, T., Ohnuki, T., 1996. Weathering of chlorite in a quartz–
chlorite schist: 1 mineralogical and chemical changes. Clays and Clay Minerals 44, 244–256.
Nadeau, P.H., Wilson, M.J., McHardy, W.J., Tait, J.M., 1984. Interstratified clays as fun-
damental particles. Science 225, 923–925.
Nieto, F., Ortega-Huertas, M., Peacor, D., Arostegui, J., 1996. Evolution of illite-smectite
from early diagenesis through incipient metamorphism in sediments of the Basque-Can-
tabrian basin. Clays and Clay Minerals 44, 304–323.
References 1159
Nieto, F., Velilla, N., Peacor, D.R., Ortega-Huertas, M., 1994. Regional retrograde alteration
of sub-green schist facies chlorite to smectite. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology
115, 243–253.
Odin, G.S. (Ed.), 1988. Green Marine Clays. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Ortega-Huertas, M., Palomo, I., Moresi, M., Oddone, M., 1991. A mineralogical and geo-
chemical approach to establish a sedimentary model in a passive continental margin (Sub-
betic Zone, Betic Cordilleras, SE Spain). Clay Minerals 26, 389–407.
Parham, W.E., 1966. Lateral variations of clay mineral assemblages in modern and ancient
sediments. In: Heller, L., Weiss, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Clay Confer-
ence, Jerusalem, vol. 1. Israel Program for Scientific Translation, pp. 135–145.
Peacor, D.R., 1992. Diagenesis and low-grade metamorphism of shales and slates. In: Buseck,
P.R. (Ed.), Minerals and Reactions at the Atomic Scale: Transmission Electron Micros-
copy. Reviews in Mineralogy, vol. 27. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC,
pp. 335–380.
Pletsch, T., DaoudI, L., Chamley, H., Deconinck, J.F., Charroud, M., 1996. Paleogeographic
controls on palygorskite occurrence in mid-Cretaceous sediments of Morocco and adjacent
basins. Clay Minerals 31, 403–416.
Ponder, H., Keller, W.D., 1960. Geology, mineralogy and genesis of selected fire-clays from
Latah Country, Idaho. 8th National Conference. Pergamon Press, New York, Clays and
Clay Minerals 8, 44–63.
Pozo, M., Casas, J., 1999. Origin of kerolite and associated Mg-clays in palustrine environ-
ments. The Esquivas deposit (Neogene, Madrid Basin, Spain). Clay Minerals 34, 395–418.
Proust, D., 1982. Supergene alteration of metamorphic chlorite in an amphibolite from the
Massif Central, France. Clay Minerals 17, 159–173.
Roberts, B., Merriman, R.J., Pratt, W., 1991. The relative influences of strain, lithology and
stratigraphical depth on white mica (illite) crystallinity in mudrocks from the district cen-
tred on the Corris Slate Belt, Gwynedd-Powys. Geological Magazine 128, 633–645.
Roberts, B., Morrison, C., Hirons, S., 1990. Low grade metamorphism of the Manx Group,
Isle of Man: a comparative study of white mica crystallinity techniques. Journal of the
Geological Society, London 147, 271–277.
Rodas, M., Luque, F.J., Mas, R., Garzo
´
n, G., 1994. Calcretes, palycretes and silcretes in the
Paleogene detrital sediments of the Duero and Tajo Basins. Clay Minerals 29, 273–285.
Romero, R., Robert, M., Elsass, F., Garcia, C., 1992. Evidence by transmission electron
microscopy of weathering microsystems in soils developed from crystalline rocks. Clay
Minerals 27, 21–34.
Ross, G.J., Kodama, H., 1976. Experimental alteration of chlorite into a regularly interstra-
tified chlorite-vermiculite by chemical oxidation. Clays and Clay Minerals 24, 183–190.
Ruiz Cruz, M.D., 1999. Clay mineral assemblages in flysch from the Campo de Gibraltar area
(Spain). Clay Minerals 34, 345–364.
Ruiz Cruz, M.D., Andreo, B., 1996. Genesis and transformation of dickite in Permo-Triassic
sediments (Betic Cordilleras, Spain). Clay Minerals 31, 133–152.
Sa
´
nchez, C., Gala
´
n, E., 1995. An approach to the genesis of palygorskite in a Neogene-
Quaternary continental basin using principal factor analysis. Clay Minerals 30, 225–238.
Shadfan, H., Dixon, J.B., 1984. Occurrence of palygorskite in the soils and rocks of the Jordan
Valley. In: Singer, A., Gala
´
n, E. (Eds.), Palygorskite-Sepiolite. Occurrences, Genesis and
Uses. Developments in Sedimentology 37. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 187–198.
Chapter 14: Genesis of Clay Minerals1160
Siddiqui, M.H.K., 1984. Occurrence of palygorskite in the Deccan Trap Formation in India.
In: Singer, A., Gala
´
n, E. (Eds.), Palygorskite-Sepiolite. Occurrences, Genesis and Uses.
Developments in Sedimentology 37. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 243–250.
Siefferman, G., Millot, G., 1969. Equatorial and tropical weathering of recent basalts from
Cameroon: allophane, halloysite, metahalloysite, kaolinite and gibbsite. In: Heller, L.
(Ed.), Proceedings of the International Clay Conference, Tokyo, vol. 1, pp. 417–430.
Singer, A., 1979. Palygorskite in sediments: detrital, diagenetic or neoformed. A critical re-
view. Geologische Rundschau 68, 996–1008.
Singer, A., 1979–1980. The paleoclimatic interpretation of clay minerals in soils and weath-
ering profiles. Earth-Science Reviews 15, 303–326.
Singer, A., 1984. Pedogenic palygorskite in the arid environment. In: Singer, A., Gala
´
n, E.
(Eds.), Palygorskite-Sepiolite. Occurrences, Genesis and Uses. Developments in Sedi-
mentology 37. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 169–177.
Singer, A., Stahr, K., Zarei, M., 1998. Characteristics and origins of sepiolite (Meerschaum)
from Somalia. Clay Minerals 33, 349–362.
Singh, B., Mackinnon, D.R., 1996. Experimental transformation of kaolinite to halloysite.
Clays and Clay Minerals 44, 825–834.
S
´
rodon
´
, J., 1999. Use of clay minerals in reconstructing geological processes: recent advances
and some perspectives. Clay Minerals 34, 27–37.
S
´
rodon
´
, J., Eberl, D.D., Drits, V.A., 2000. Evolution of fundamental particle size during
reaction of smectite and implications for the illitization mechanism. Clays and Clay Min-
erals 48, 446–458.
Stakes, D.S., O’Neil, J.R., 1982. Mineralogy and stable isotope geochemistry of hydrother-
mally altered oceanic rocks. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 57, 285–304.
Suarez, M., Robert, M., Elssass, F., Pozas, J.M.M., 1995. Evidence of a precursor in the
neoformation of palygorskite. New data by analytical electron microscopy. Clay Minerals
29, 255–264.
Taylor, J.H., 1952. Clay minerals and the evolution of sedimentary rocks. Clay Minerals
Bulletin 1, 238–243.
Tillick, D., Peacor, D.R., Mauk, J.L., 2001. Genesis of dioctahedral phyllosilicates during
hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks: 1 The Golden Cross epithermal ore deposit,
New Zealand. Clays and Clay Minerals 49, 126–140.
Velde, B., 1992. Introduction to Clay Minerals. Chapman & Hall, London.
Velde, B., 2001. Clay minerals in the agricultural surface soils in the Central United States.
Clay Minerals 36, 277–294.
Vicente-Herna
´
ndez, J., Vicente, M.A., Robert, M., Goodman, B.A., 1983. Evolution
des biotites en function des conditions d’oxydo-reduction du milieu. Clay Minerals 18,
267–275.
Weaver, C.E., 1960. Possible uses of clay minerals in the search for oil. Clays and Clay
Minerals, 8th National Conference. Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 214–227.
Weaver, C.E., Beck, K.C., 1977. Miocene of the SE United States: a model for chemical
sedimentation in a peri-marine environment. Sedimentary Geology 17, 1–234.
Wilson, M.J., 1987a. Soil smectites and related interstratified minerals: recent develop-
ments. In: Schultz, L.G., van Olphen, H., Mumpton, F.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the
International Clay Conference, Denver, 1985. The Clay Minerals Society, Bloomington,
IN, pp. 167–173.
References 1161
Wilson, M.J., 1987b. Clay mineralogy and mineral weathering; their significance in acid rain
and catchment studies. In: Pe
´
rez-Rodriguez, J.L., Gala
´
n, E. (Eds.), Lectures 6th Meeting of
the European Clay Groups. Sociedad Espan
˜
ola de Arcillas, Sevilla, pp. 167–184.
Wilson, M.J., 1999. The origin and formation of clay minerals in soils: past, present and future
perpectives. Clay Minerals 34, 7–25.
Wirth, L., 1968. Attapulgites du Se
´
ne
´
gal occidental. Rapport 26, Laboratoire de Ge
´
ologie.
Faculte
´
des Sciences. Universite
´
de Dakar.
Zhao, G., Peacor, D.R., McDowell, S.D., 1999. Retrograde diagenesis of clay minerals in the
Precambrian Freda sandstone, Wisconsin. Clays and Clay Minerals 47, 119–130.
Chapter 14: Genesis of Clay Minerals1162