Austin E W., Pinkleton B.E. Strategic Public Relations Management. Planning and Managing Effective Communication Programs
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x CONTENTS
Survey Research Overview 167
Experiments 174
Content Analysis 183
Final Thoughts 190
10 Making Research Decisions: Survey Research 191
Mail Surveys 193
Telephone Surveys 200
Online Electronic Surveys 206
Personal Interviews 209
Final Thoughts 216
11 Making Research Decisions: Questionnaire Design 217
Understanding Reliability and Validity 218
Levels of Measurement and Why They Matter 222
Types of Questions and the Information Each Type
Provides 226
Ensuring Clarity and Avoiding Bias 232
Questionnaire Layout and Design 234
Handling “Don’t Know” Responses 239
Design Features That Affect Response Rate 243
Final Thoughts 250
12 Collecting, Analyzing, and Reporting Quantitative Data 251
Designing Surveys for Easy Data Entry 251
Training Interviewers 256
Call Sheets 257
Timing of Telephone Surveys 258
Response Rates 258
Reporting Univariate Relationships 260
Reporting Relationships Among Variables 263
Final Thoughts 266
III. USING THEORY FOR PRACTICAL GUIDANCE
13 What Theory Is and Why It Is Useful 271
What Is a Theory? 272
Finding a Good Theory 272
CONTENTS xi
A Theoretical Framework for “Symmetrical” Public
Relations 274
A Theoretical Framework for “Asymmetrical”
Campaigns 284
Final Thoughts 296
14 Theories for Creating Effective Message Strategies 297
Mendelsohn’s Three Assumptions for Success 298
How People Respond to Messages (McGuire’s
Hierarchy of Effects or “Domino” Model
of Persuasion) 299
Just How Difficult Is It? 305
Problems With a Source-Oriented Perspective 306
Limitations of the Domino Model—Acknowledging
People Are Not Always Logical 309
Why People Respond to Messages—Finding the Right
Motivating Strategy 311
Other Theories That Explain Special Situations 326
Final Thoughts 327
15 Practical Applications of Theory for Strategic Planning 328
About Sources 329
About Messages 330
About Channels 332
Which Channels Are Best? 335
Media Advocacy (Guerilla Media) 337
Making Media Advocacy Work 340
Making the Most of Unplanned Opportunities 343
Final Thoughts 345
IV. THE SUCCESSFUL PITCH
AND FOLLOW-THROUGH
16 Presenting Campaigns, Program Proposals,
and Research Reports 349
Introductory Material 350
Executive Summary 352
Situation Analysis and Research Needs 353
Research Goals 354
xii CONTENTS
Research Objectives 354
Research Hypotheses 354
Research Strategies 354
Results (With Minimal Interpretation) 355
Revised Situation Analysis 356
Proposed Communication Plan 356
Conclusion 357
References and Appendixes 357
The Successful Writer’s Mind-Set 357
Oral Presentations 360
Final Thoughts 361
Appendix A Code of Professional Standards for the Practice of
Public Relations 362
Appendix B Code of Professional Ethics and Practices 373
Appendix C Guidelines and Standards for Measuring and
Evaluating PR Effectiveness 377
References 389
Author Index 401
Subject Index 404
Preface to the Second Edition
We decided to write this book in 1995 when we attended the national Pub-
lic Relations Society of America convention in Seattle. We observed with
some surprise that the sessions on measurement and evaluation attracted
standing-room-only crowds, and many conversations in the hallways fo-
cused on the same issues. Managers seemed frustrated with the challenges
of proving the value of public relations and developing credibility as coun-
selors to upper management. Meanwhile, discussions about the need to
prove results in the trade press had increased steadily. We were getting
calls from organizations wanting research who never before had seen the
need for it. We had alumni reporting back to us about how well their course
work in research and planning had prepared them for the so-called real
world and how their training had positioned them advantageously in their
organizations. Both experience and observation had taught us that research
and strategic planning serve as powerful tools.
Just as strategic plans need updating every few years, we realized we
needed to update our book. As authors and teachers, we wrote this vol-
ume to serve as our ideal resource for our own classes and then hoped
others would find it useful, too. We have felt honored and gratified that
other teachers and practitioners also have put it to use successfully since
publication of the first edition in 2001. Nonetheless, the field evolves and
contexts change. Our files of new trends, examples, and research practices
has grown, especially with the explosion of Internet technologies. Col-
leagues also have made a few suggestions that we wanted to incorporate,
so we have done some updating and a bit of rearranging.
The primary changes cover three main areas. First, we have updated
the information on research methods to incorporate methods that make
use of the Internet and computer programs that aid data entry and analy-
sis. Second, because we believe in learning by seeing and doing, we have
xiii
xiv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
updated examples and added examples in spots that seemed a little bare or
abstract and have clarified some of our existing examples. Finally, we have
made some subtle changes to reflect the fact that this book applies to com-
munication program planning more broadly than just to public relations
specifically.
We would like to thank those of you who have given this book a try
and provided us with feedback. We encourage others to contact us as well
so that we can continue to make the book as useful as possible. We also
would like to express our appreciation to Yi-Chun “Yvonnes” Chen, Myiah
Hively, and Rebecca Van de Vord for their assistance with this revision.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REPRISE
We again want to extend our grateful thanks to the individuals and organi-
zations who assisted us with the first edition. We have tried to put together
lessons learned from both applied and academic experience. We have
been privileged to learn from many excellent teachers including Chuck
Atkin, Steve Chaffee, Rick Cole, June Flora, Gina Garramone, Jim Gaudino,
Randall Murray, and Don Roberts. We are indebted to Jim Grunig, whose
input, advice, and encouragement were critical factors in the completion
of this book. We also owe many thanks to our students, who have taught
us well.
There are a number of other people whose special efforts have helped
us make this book happen. We would like to thank the director of the
Edward R. Murrow School of Communication, Alexis Tan, for helping us
develop the confidence and expertise necessary to complete this project
and for providing support in every way he could. We also deeply appreci-
ate the help and humor of our friend and colleague Julie Andsager, who did
everything from listening to us whine to typing references. Yuki Fujioka
provided valuable feedback on a key chapter, and a number of other grad-
uate and undergraduate students helped with research, including Tracy
Lee Clarke, Heather Crandall, Kris Fortman, Petra Guerra, Lisa Holloway,
and Bill Wisniewski.
We also have greatly benefitted from the help of practitioners, includ-
ing Maggie Crabtree, Ned Hubbell, Sara Labberton, Walter Lindenmann,
Edward Maibach, Louis Richmond, Scott Simms, and Collin Tong. We also
would like to thank the Puget Sound Chapter of the Public Relations So-
ciety of America, which invited us to try our ideas on them and then
provided us with critical and enthusiastic feedback. Thanks also to the
Institute for Public Relations Research and Education for financial sup-
port and to Christopher Knaus, who made that support possible. We have
also appreciated the helpfulness of editor Linda Bathgate and production
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION xv
manager Robin Weisberg of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates throughout the
publication process. We are grateful for the advice and support of Stan and
Rodelle Weintraub, who have written many more books than we ever will
and who make it look easy. Finally, we continue to owe a monstrous debt
to our families for their unselfish support and incredible patience.
Erica Weintraub Austin
Bruce E. Pinkleton
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1
The Need for Strategic Public
Relations Management
Chapter Contents
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Surviving Amid Fierce Competition
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Strategic Versus Tactical Decision Making
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The Often Misunderstood Role of Public Relations
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Using Research to Enhance the Credibility of Public Relations
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Organization of the Book
Strategic public relations planning and research techniques have evolved
into the most powerful tools available to public relations practitioners.
Today’s competitive business environment increasingly puts pressure on
communication managers to demonstrate in a measurable way how the re-
sults from public relations programs benefit the organizations they serve.
Practitioners well prepared to use the tools available to them can enjoy big-
ger budgets, more autonomy in decision making, and greater support from
management. Managers relying on an intuitive model of public relations
practice based on their knowledge of media markets and a well-developed
network of contacts, however, tend to have less credibility, enjoy less au-
tonomy, receive lower priority, and suffer greater risk of cost cutting that
threatens job security.
1
2 CHAPTER 1
SURVIVING AMID FIERCE COMPETITION
The increasingly competitive business and social environment makes
it critical for public relations managers to understand how to apply
public relations planning, research, and program-evaluation practices that
help ensure success and accountability. Research-based public relations
practices enable managers to solve complex problems, set and achieve
or exceed goals and objectives, track the opinions and beliefs of key
publics, and employ program strategies with confidence that they will
have the intended results. Although the use of research in public relations
management cannot guarantee program success, it allows practitioners to
maximize their abilities and move beyond creative reactions to scientific
management. A more strategic management style can help control the ways
a situation will develop and the outcomes practitioners achieve in those
situations.
Consider the following scenarios in which communication professionals
can use research-based planning to develop effective strategies for solving
a problem and demonstrate program success.
Community Relations
You are the public affairs director for the largest employer in a com-
munity. The local media have been running stories about problems at the
company, claiming management has lost sight of its unique role in the
community. The board of directors wants a clear understanding of public
perceptions of the company. It also wants to develop new programs that
will better serve the community and improve community relations. You
are not convinced the company needs to establish new programs as much
as it needs to support its existing programs. How do you determine the
opinions and attitudes of community members toward the company? How
do you measure community perceptions of existing programs, as well as
community interest in new programs?
Special Events Planning and Promotion
You are the manager of a performing arts coliseum. The coliseum has
lost money on several events over the past 2 years and now is threatened by
competition from a new community theater scheduled for construction in
2 years. Coliseum management and its board of directors sense they are out
of touch with the community and are unsure how to address the situation.
How can management determine community programming interests and
begin to reorient itself to the needs and desires of community members
without wasting valuable resources?
PUBLIC RELATIONS MANAGEMENT 3
Political Campaign
You are the campaign manager for a state senatorial candidate. The
mostly rural district has 75,000 registered voters, many of whom work as
farmers or in farming-related businesses and industries. The election is 9
months away, and the candidates are engaged in a close contest. How do
you track changes in voters’ perceptions of your candidate as the election
nears?
Nonprofit
You are a public relations practitioner at a small, nonprofit organiza-
tion. Your new assignment is to rescue a local special event with a troubled
history. The event, sponsored by the local chamber of commerce, is sup-
posed to raise money for your organization while attracting visitors who
patronize local businesses in your community. The most recent event was
a disaster, however, despite a strong media relations effort. Because of low
attendance, the organization barely broke even on the event, and local
businesses have lost interest in participating next year as sponsors. How
do you find out what went wrong and make next year’s event a success?
Development
You are a senior development officer at a major university. Development
has become increasingly important as state budgets have dwindled. The
university is making preparations for the largest development campaign
in its history. Unfortunately, students let their partying get out of hand after
a big football win over cross-state rivals, and the fracas attracted national
media attention. You are concerned the negative media attention will sig-
nificantly hinder university development efforts. You need to understand
the opinions and attitudes of key segments of the public to develop a quick
plan that will allow you to respond in an effective manner. How do you de-
termine the responses of donors and nondonors to news of the disturbance?
Public relations practitioners face problems like these on a regular basis,
and the small problems can help organizations deal with bigger ones when
they arise. J. Wayne Leonard, the chief executive of Entergy, the power
company serving the New Orleans area, said his company felt prepared
for the unprecedented catastrophe of 2005’s Hurricane Katrina because
“we have the skills and planning to deal with catastrophe because we
deal with it on a small scale all the time.” Besides the company’s efforts
to restore power to 1.1 million customers, his management response in-
cluded evacuation for his own employees, assurances that their jobs would
be preserved, coordination with government officials, and making sure