Adams J.T. Empire on the Seven Seas. The British Empire 1784-1939
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CONTENTS
I.
THE
NEW
ERA
i
A
Fresh
Start.
The Industrial
Revolution.
The Social
Scene.
Religion
and
the
Common Man.
II. THE
EMPIRE
AND THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
19
Pitt
and
Fox.
The
Upheaval
in France.
War with
France.
III.
THE
EXPANDING
EMPIRE
35
Period
of
Reaction.
Anglo-American
Relations.
India.
Australia
and
New
Zealand.
IV.
THE
NAPOLEONIC
STRUGGLE
51
The
Renewal of
the
War.
The Naval
War.
Forces
Against
Dictatorship.
The
Economic
War. The Peace
and
the
"Hundred
Days."
The American
War
and the
Empire.
V.
AFTER
NAPOLEON
74
The Economic Aftermath.
The
Crown.
Labor
and
Re-
form.
Foreign
Policy.
Art and
Literature.
The
Empire
Overseas.
VI.
THE
REVOLUTION
IN IDEAS
98
The
Sense
of
Law and
Order.
Ireland
Aflame.
The
Great
Reform
Bill. Effects
of
the Bill.
Further Re-
forms.
ix
CONTENTS
VII.
THE
BREATH
OF
NEW
LIFE
118
Victoria.
Labor
and
the Poor.
Changes
in
Early
Vic-
torian
Period.
New
Theory
of
Empire.
The Successful
Experiment
in
Canada.
The
Amazing
Development
of
Australia.
Government
Established
in
New
Zealand.
The
Shifting
Policy
in South Africa.
New
Trends
in
India.
China
and
the
Opium
War.
VIIL
EARLY
VICTORIAN
147
Peel and
the
Corn
Laws.
Unrest.
Optimism
and
the
Great
Exhibition. Social Conditions.
Literature
and
the
Arts.
Foreign
Relations.
Canada
Comes
of
Age.
Changes
in
Australia. India
and
the
Mutiny.
IX.
THE
TURN
OF
THE CENTURY
174
The
Turning
Point. Unification
of
Italy.
Britain
and
the
American Civil War,
Rise
of
Germany.
Economics
and
Labor.
Reform in
1867.
Attitude Toward
the
Em-
pire.
Federation
of Canada.
Significant Development
in
New Zealand.
Difficulties
in
South Africa.
X.
NEW
POWERS AND
NEW
FORCES
203
The
Threshold
of
Our
Own
Day.
The
Partition of
Africa and
the
New
Imperialism.
Britain
Falls
Behind.
JDisraeli
and the
Changing
Order. Gladstone
and Ire-
land* Educational
and
Other
Reforms.
Disraeli
Re-
form
and
Empire.
The
Eastern
Question.
The
New
Radicalism*
XL THE
EIGHTEEN-EIGHTIES
229
Difficulties of
the
Gladstone
Ministry.
The
Crisis
in
Egypt.
Ireland
and the Home
Rule
Question.
Break-
down
of
Liberalism and
Rise
of
Labor*
XII.
THE
NEW
IMPERIALISM
253
Change
in
Imperial
Feeling.
Victoria's
Jubilee.
Be-
ginning
of
Imperial
Conferences*
Race for
Empire*
Changed European
Alignments.
India Now
a
Unified
Country.
The
Stability
of
Canada.
The
Bold
Experi-
ment in New
Zealand.
The
Labor
Movement in
Aus-
tralia. The
Diamond
Jubilee*
CONTENTS
XIII.
THE
REACTION
FROM
IMPERIALISM
286
The Boer
War.
Britain's Isolation.
Germany
and
France.
End
of
the
Boer War.
The
Imperialism
of
1900.
Union
of
the
Australian
States.
Curzon
in India.
XIV.
THE
EDWARDIAN
PERIOD
304
Last
Years
of
Victoria.
Edward
VII.
End of
the
Boer
War
and
Settlement.
Egypt.
Imperial
Problems.
India.
The
Empire
Drawing
Closer
Together.
International
Affairs.
The
Crisis
in Britain. Factions
in
Ireland.
XV.
THE
WORLD WAR
AND AFTER
331
The
War.
The
Peace.
Postwar
at
Home.
Irish
Free
State
Established.
New
Dominion
Status. Government
of
India
Act.
Britain's
Responsibility
in
Egypt.
League
Failure
and
the
Results.
Edward
VIII.
George
VI
and the
New
World War.
CHRONOLOGY
*
359
INDEX
363
EMPIRE ON
THE SEVEN
SEAS
CHAPTER I
THE
NEW
ERA
I. A
FRESH
START
THE
YEAR
1783
was
one of
gloom
in
Great
Britain. She had
just
emerged
from
a
long
and
exhausting
war
against
a
world
in arms
against
her. The
independence
of
the
United
States
had
had to
be
acknowledged
and
the work of
some two
cen-
turies
of
exploration
and
colonization
appeared
to have
been
largely
lost. Between
the as
yet
unappreciated
colony
of
Canada,
with
its
almost
unknown
territory
and
resources,
and the
remaining
islands
in
the
West
Indies,
she
had lost
all her
possessions
on the Atlantic
seaboard,
with over
3,000,000
of
citizens and lucrative markets.
The
nation,
bitter and
anxious,
could not foresee
that in
the
next
century
a
new
Empire
would
be
formed
which
would
rise
to
the
pinnacle
of
power,
wealth and
prestige.
But if
there
is
one
lesson
which
the
two
millenniums of British
history
teach,
it
is that
the
race
is never so
great
as in
defeat
and
when,
all
seems
lost.
There
is
an
old
saying,
which
has been
proved
again
and
again,
that
England
loses
all
battles
but the
last one.
Tenacity,
courage,
the refusal
to
admit defeat
have
somehow
always
pulled
her
through. Again
and
again
she
has
faced
apparent
extinction,
at
the
hands
of
the Saxons
and
Danes,
of
William
the
Norman,
of
empires
such
as
those of
Spain,
of
Louis
XIV,
of
Napoleon,
of
Germany,
but if
she has
not had
the
imagination
to
prepare
for
a
crisis,
neither
has
she had the
imagination
to admit
defeat.
If she has never
yet
suffered
a
permanent
one,
it
may
well
EMPIRE
ON
THE
SEVEN SEAS
be because
of
this
lack
and of
the
belief,
sometimes
so
annoying
to
foreigners,
in her
own
superiority.
This
volume
begins
with
a
heavy
loss
and ends with
the
threat
of
another
mighty
struggle
j
but
it
also
ends
with the
British
Empire,
with
its
ownership
of
a
quarter
of
the
globe
and
with
500,000,000 citizens,
as
still the
greatest
political
factor
that
the
world
has
ever
known.
At the
beginning
of
the
period
which this book
covers,
Great
Britain,
like the rest
of
the
world,
was
in the
grip
of
forces
it
could
neither
recognize
nor
understand
but
which
were
to
push
the
human
race
along
the most
bewildering
and
fantastic
stretch
of
road it
has
ever
encountered
in its
long
journey.
The
changes
which will
have
to
be
briefly
chronicled
in
the next
century
and
a half
were
to
prove
greater
for
the
lives
of
ordinary
British
people
than
all
those
of
the
twenty
centuries before.
Perhaps,
in
the turmoil
following
the
peace,
the dilettante Horace
Walpole
showed more
prescience
than
any
of
the
statesmen when
he
wrote
that,
when
asked
"
(
How
all
this
would
end?,''
I answered
'How will
it
begin
?*
"
There
was in-
deed
much
beginning
which would
eventually
affect the
inhabitants
of
the entire
globe
in
every
quarter,
and
which
has
brought
us
of
this
generation
to
possibly
the
greatest
crisis
in the
history
of man-
kind.
Britain,
which,
like
a
wounded lion with a
great
gash
in
its
side,
faced the
world and the
future,
was
numerically
inferior to
many
of its continental
neighbors.
Its
population
even
at
the
opening
of
the nineteenth
century,
when
the
first
official census
was
taken in
1801,
was
approximately
that of
Italy
and
considerably
less
than
those
of
Russia
or
France,
One
of
the
striking
features of the
period
of
this
chapter,
however,
was the
great
increase
in the
fifty
years
preceding
our
first
accurate
statistics.
A
proposal
to
enumerate
the
people
in
1753
had
been
objected
to in
Parliament
as
"totally
sub-
versive of
the
last
remains of
English liberty"
and as
demonstrat-
ing
the
weakness of the
nation
to its
enemies.
However,
in
the
second
half
of
the
century
population
rose
from
6,500,000
to
over
8,000,000.
This
increase,
which
marked the
beginning
of
the
"rise of
the
masses,"
has no
undisputed
explanation.
The
industrial
revolution
A
FRESH START
had
not
yet
developed
into
its
later
phase,
and
the
increases
were
not
confined
in
any
case
to
England
but
were
almost
equally
notable
in Ireland
and on
the
Continent.
This was
probably
due,
not
to
many
of
the
causes
which
have
been
suggested,
but
largely
to the
decrease in
infant
mortality
owing
to
improvement
in
midwifery
and
medical
science
in
general.
The
latter,
combined
with better
sanitation
and
living
conditions,
tended also
to
prolong
the
life
of
adults. The
fact,
however,
that
by
1801
(eleven
years,
it
may
be
noted,
after
the
first
official
census
was taken
in the
United
States)
the
population
of the
British
Isles
had
risen with
amazing
rapidity
to around
15,000,000,
is
of
very
considerable
influence
in
our
story.
It affected
economic,
political
and class
thinking
to
a
marked
de-
gree.
Moreover,
in
considering
the evils
of
the
machine
age
it must
be recalled
that with the
increasing
population
trend,
which
began
before the
real industrial
revolution,
it
would
have
been
impossible
to
support
the
new
masses
without
the
employment, transportation
and
other
effects of
the
machine
on
society,
evil
as
many
of
the
aspects
of
the
new social order
were
to be.
Before
considering
the
life
of
this
population
more
in
detail,
we
may
note
that
by
the time
we
have
now
reached,
Britain,
in
spite
of
its small
territory,
its American
losses,
and
its
inferiority
in
num-
bers,
held
one
trump
card.
By
changes
in
world
trade,
England
had
become the central focus of
the
most
important
maritime routes for
Europe,
America
and
the
Far
East.
If
these
could
be held
by
sea
power,
and if
England's
nascent manufactures
could
surpass
those
of
the
European powers,
she would control
the markets
of
the
world and
outstrip
every
competitor
for
wealth
and
power.
Manu-
factures,
trade
markets,
lordship
of
the
seas,
those
were
to
be the
weapons
with
which
Britain
was
to
win
intoxicating
success out
of
humiliating
defeat.
England
was
still
aristocratic,
with
power
for
the most
part
in
the
hands
of the
upper
classes
as
represented
by
the
nobility,
the
county
families,
the
squires,
clergy
and
justices
of
the
peace.
These
controlled
not
only
the
making
but
the
administration of the
laws,
which
naturally
were
almost
wholly,
and
often
cruelly,
in their
own
favor. For
these
and
the
increasing-number
of new
rich
who
were
EMPIRE
ON
THE
SEVEN
SEAS
allied
with
them,
England,
if
not
the best
of
all
possible
worlds,
was
an
exceedingly
comfortable
one
and
one in
which
the
ruling
classes dreaded
to
see
any change
made.
Change,
however,
although unrecognized
by
them,
was
at
work,
and the
beginning
of
the
cleavage
into "two
Englands,"
that
of the
rich
and
that
of
the landless
poor,
had
begun. Many
factors,
closely
related,
were
combining
to
bring
it
about. The
nation
was still
80
per
cent
agricultural,
with
London
as its
one
great
city,
the
minor
provincial
towns
lagging
far
behind.
The
English
village
of the
old
days
was
nc t
a
mere
collection of farms
but
supported
a
life
largely
communal and
of varied
occupations.
Two
forces,
one
realized
and
the
other
not,
were
destined to
undermine
this ancient
rural
society.
On the
one
hand,
practically
all the
leaders in
agricultural
improvement
believed enclosures
and
the
private
ownership
of the
land,
in
large
or
small
amounts,
to
be
essential
if
farming
methods
were to
be
bettered
and
an in-
creased
food
supply
raised for
the
increasing
population. Although
Malthas
did
not
publish
his
famous
Essay
on
Population
until
1798,
the desire
for
improvement
and the
fear of dearth
had
long
been
at
work. It was true
that
the
old
form
of communal
farming
did
prevent
experimentation
and even the use
of tools
and
methods
already
known.
One stubborn
or
ignorant
farmer could block
any
change,
and
without
enclosures it was
impossible
to
improve
the
breed
of
animals or
get
the
best
results from
the
soil.
However,
when the
change
from common to
enclosed lands
did
occur
on a
large
scale
there were effects
which the
reformers
had
not
anticipated.
The old method
had been
wasteful and
unpro-
gressive
but
had
provided
reasonable
security.
Under the
new
sys-
tem,
to
a considerable
extent,
among
the
lesser
farmers
there were
those
who came into
possession
of bits
of land
too small
to
farm
properly
or
who had
no
capital
or
were
lazy
or
incompetent.
Many,
too,
were
tempted
to sell
their lands for
money
soon
spent.
The
extent?
of
the
change
is
indicated
by
the
fact
that,
although
from
1
7
10
to
1
760
only
300,000
acres
had
been
enclosed,
over
7,000,000
were taken
over between
the
latter date
and
1
843.
Moreover,
there
was
a
steady
movement
from small
to
large
farms,
one observer